Dietary intake
and anthropometry in elite Spanish athletes
By Guadalupe Garrido Pastor, Manuel Sillero Quintana, Amaia Garda Aparicio, Alicia Canda Moreno, Susana Martinez Sanchez
AUTHORS
Guadalupe Garrido Pastor,
PhD, is a professor in the Faculty of Physical Activity and Sport Sciences at the Technical University of Madrid. Manuel Sillero
Quintana, PhD, is a professor in the Faculty of Physical Activity and Sport Sciences at the Technical University of Madrid
and he is an athletics coach. Amaia Garcia Aparicio, Ph D, is an associate professor in the Faculty of Physical Activity and
Sport Sciences at the Camillo Jose Cela University in Madrid. Alicia Canda Moreno, PhD, is an assistant professor in the Faculty
of Physical Activity and Sport Sciences at the Camillo Jose Cela University and the head of anthropometry services at the
National Sports Medicine Centre in Madrid. Susana Martinez Sanchez is a technician at the National Sports Medicine Centre
in Madrid.
ABSTRACT
It is crucial to assess an athlete's dietary intake and control
the evolution of his/her anthropometric variables throughout the training season. However, there are few modern studies in
this area carried out on elite adult track and field athletes. In a project commissioned by the Spanish athletics federation
and supported by the Spanish Sports Council, the authors made controlled diet and body composition assessments of members
of the Spanish national athletic team training at the national high-performance training centre in Madrid. The sample included
19 female and 19 male elite athletes from the middle- and long-distances, sprints, jumps and combined events. Working closely
with the coaches, the authors gathered extensive data, including anthropometric
measurements, nutritional intake and
energy expenditure. They compared their findings with references and suggested intakes published by a variety of sources.
They were able to draw 18 conclusions, including the identification of a) deficits in the consumption of carbohydrates as
well vitamins D and E for the athletes studied, b) a deficit in fluid intake for the middle- and long-distance runners and
c) a deficit in folic acid for the female athletes. They end with a recommendation for further research projects in this area,
with larger samples and specific protocols.
Introduction
When attempting to maximize an athlete's performance, it is crucial to assess dietary intake
and to control the evolution of anthropometric variables throughout the training season (O'CONNOR, OLDS, & MAUGHAN, 2007).
Naturally concerned about this point, the Spanish Athletics Federation (RFEA), supported by the Spanish Sports Council (CSD),
signed a collaboration agreement with the Faculty of Physical Activity and Sport Sciences (INEF) of the Technical University
of Madrid (UPM) in order to provide top Spanish athletes with nutritional counselling and monitoring.
Few modem studies dealing with these issues and carried out on elite adult track and field athletes have been published in
scientific impact sources. Articles on nutrition for elite athletes disclose the characteristics of specialised nutrition
for top athletes (HOUTKOOPER et aI., 2007; PORTUGALOV, 1998; STELLINGWERFF et aI., 2007; TIPTON et aI., 2007) and the appropriate
nutritional supplements for increasing athletic performance (GIAMPIETRO et aI., 1998), but not many analyze the nutritional
status of the elite athlete and its relationship with anthropometric characteristics (MULLINS et al., 2001).
The same can be said about specialised articles on anthropometry. Some are general surveys including athletes from different
Olympic disciplines (FLECK, 1983), others are focused on female athletes (MALINA et aI., 1971) or junior athletes (HOLLINGS
& ROBSON, 1991; HOUSH et aI., 1984; THORLAND et aI., 1981), or they just compare the differences between athletes and
non-athletes (ROUSANOGLOU et aI., 2006).
Methods
This
study consisted of a controlled diet and body composition assessment of members of the Spanish national athletic team training
at the national high performance training centre in Madrid.
The sample (n=38) included 19 female and 19 male elite athletes
from middle-distance ("1/2D" = 800 and 1500m; six females and six males), long-distance ("LD" = more than
3000m; seven females and seven males) and speed events ("S.E." = 400m and shorter, jumpers and combined events;
six females and six males). A more detailed description of the sample is given in Table 1.
Before the diet assessment, we contacted the athletes and their coaches in order to explain the purpose of the assessment
and the protocols that were to be applied. It was emphasized that they were to be asked to report a complete description of
dietary intake on three different days of the week prior to the appointment.
The diet assessment
made through a personal interview of each athlete, using standardized questionnaires for recording the food intake throughout
the day (breakfast, lunch, dinner and snacks). Three different days were measured corresponding to a hard-training day (normally
a double-session day), a normal-training day and a rest day.
Dietary data were transformed into energy
and nutrients by DIAL software (Alce Ingenierfa SA, Madrid). This computer program is open and it can be updated introducing
new recipes
and/or commercial products. The software allowed us to analyze diet composition in macronutrients (proteins,
carbohydrates and lipids) and in micronutrients (vitamins and minerals) and their distribution among the three main meals.
Kilocalories and fibre intake were also reported and compared with the Dietary Reference Intakes (ORis) by age and gender
suggested by the FOOD AND NUTRITION BOARD & INSTITUTE OF MEDICINE OF THE NATIONAL ACADEMIES OF SCIENCE (2006).
Physical activity and energy expenditure were estimated from a detailed report (15 minute fractions) of daily activity carried
out during the three recorded days (hard-training, normal-training and rest days). Data were subsequently checked by the coach.
The physical activity level (PAL) was calculated dividing sum of daily MET by 24 hours (PAL = ∑
MET/24 hr).
The activity factor (PA) and the athletes' gender and age were considered for calculating
the estimated energy requirements (EER) (FNB & 10M, 2002). Both in females and males, the PA was established according
to the previously calculated PAL following the recommendations of the FOOD AND NUTRITION BOARD (2002) by activity group.
Equations for the estimation of the EER by gender and age of the athlete were:
Females (Over 18 years): EER (kcal/day) = 354 - (6.91 * age [years]) + PA * [(9.36 * weight [kg] + (726 * height [m])]
Males (Over 18 years): EER (kcal/day) = 662 - (9.53 * age [years]) + PA * [(15.91
* weight [kg] + (539.6 * height [m])]
(FOOD AND NUTRITION BOARD & INSTITUTE OF MEDICINE OF THE
NATIONAL ACADEMIES OF SCIENCE, 2002)
Previously calibrated and validated anthropometrical instruments
(GPM, Switzerland) were used for collecting 28 anthropometrical variables following the ISAK (MAR FELLJONES et al., 2006)
and Spanish Kinantropometry Group (GREG) (ESPARZA, 1993) standard protocols.
The Drinkwater-Ross
method (DRINKWATER & ROSS, 1980) was established for analyzing body composition (percentage of fat mass: %FM, percentage
of skeletal mass: %SM, percentage of muscular mass: %MM, and percentage of residual mass: %RM). The percentage of body fat
mass estimated by the Yuhasz equation (ESPARZA, 1993) was additionally calculated as a second reference for the %FM.
Phantom (ROSS et aI., 1982) and Somatotype (CARTER, 2002) methodologies were applied in order to display and analyze the anthropometric
data in a brief and comprehensive way.
ANOVA and Tukey post hoc tests were run into SPSS 12.0 to
analyze differences by gender and discipline groups for each recorded variable. The Student T-test was used to test intraindividual
comparisons of energy intake from the diet (EI) and estimated energy expenditure (EER). Additionally, Pearson product-moment
correlation coefficients were calculated between nutrition and anthropometric variables in order to find a relationship between
energy expenditure and food intake and body composition.
Results and Discussion
Anthropometric
results
Averaged results by gender and discipline for age, body mass index (BMI) and all
recorded anthropometric variables are shown in Table 1. After applying the Phantom methodology to the original variables,
"Z" Phantom scores were obtained and these are presented in Table 2.
Somatotypes by disciplines are detailed in Table 3. They are displayed in Figure 1 for females and Figure 2 for males so that
the results can be seen side by side.
Our general results for females agree with a classic survey carried out during the 1972 Olympic Games (2.3 - 3.4 - 3.5) (CARTER
et aI., 1 982). However, female somatotypes showed slight differences among athletic disciplines, which were confirmed by
the short Somatotype Attitudinal Distances (SAD(FE-'hD) = 0.59, SAD('/2D-LD) = 0.54, SAD(FE-LD) = 0.19) and the small Somatotype
Attitudinal Mean (SAM = 0.44). These lack of differences have been reported previously in junior Olympic athletes sample (THORLAND
et aI., 1981) but we considered it quite surprising, especially in the case of the mesomorphic components, which are similar
between speed event athletes and distance runners. However, our results match up with others from the Spanish national women's'
team, in which the sample was much larger (1/20: 2.6 - 3.1 - 3.5; l.D: 2.1 - 3.2 - 3.5; Sprinters: 2.4 - 3.3 - 3.3; Combined
Events: 2.5 - 3.5 - 3.5) (CANDA, 2001), and can be explained by the low level of the female sprinters in Spain and the lack
of 100m and 200m athletes, who generally have greater muscular development, in our sample.
The mean
somatotype for males agrees with the classic model (1.7 - 5.0 - 2.9) (CARTER et aI., 1982) and other older values from the
Spanish national team (1/20: 1.5 - 4.3 - 3.6; Lo: 1.4 - 4.2 - 3.7; Sprinters: 1.7- 5.2 - 2.8; Combined Events: 1.8 - 5.6 -
2.4) except for the mesomorphic component in middle- and long-distances. In this aspect, it must be stated that the data collection
was
conducted in a phase of high volume and low intensity workload for these athletes, which could have an influence
on the low mesomorphic component registered.
The Somatotype Attitudinal Distances among the speed
events and the other disciplines for males were slightly longer than for females (SAo(FE"/2D) = 1.32, SAo(FE'LD) = 1.09).
This data indicate a specific typology in the sprinters and jumpers. However, middle- and long-distance runners had quite
similar somatotypes (SAD(1/2D-LD) = 0.31), which indicates a similar typology between those athletes. Finally, the Somatotype
Attitudinal Mean for the male athletes was greater than for females (SAM = 0.44), which points again to a more heterogeneous
Somatotype by
disciplines.
Table 4 shows a summary of the estimates of the percentage of body
fat mass (%FMDR), muscle mass (%MMDR), skeletal mass (%SMDR) and residual mass (%RMDR), along with the sum of the four components
obtained by the Drinkwater approach (SUM DR) by gender and athletic discipline. Additionally, the estimate of the percentage
of body fat mass was calculated by the Yuhasz equation (%FMY) for the same groups. Our results of body composition are quite
consistent with those obtained in other studies by Spanish authors (CANDA, 2001; ESPARZA, 1993; PACHECO, 1996), but differ
from the percentage values due to differences in the method used to estimate each component.
The
results show significant differences by gender for the %FM estimated both by the Yuhasz equation (F%FMY(1.35) = 88.1; P <
0.05) and by the Drinkwater method (F%FMDR(135) =
29.1; P < 0.05) and also for the %SM (F%SMDR(1.35) = 11.7; P <
0.05), but not for the %MM (F%MMDR(135) = 3.5; P = 0.07) or the % RM (F%FMDR(135) = 1.0; P = 0.31).
No significant
differences were found in any body composition component in female athletes, and only differences for the %RM were found in
males (F%FMDR(2,16) = 7.4; P < 0.05), with lower percentages of residual mass in speed event athletes (25.9%) than in middle-(27.2%)
and long-distance runners (27.4%).
Nutritional results
The energy balance of the athletes was determined based
on the estimated energy input (EI) by diet and energy expenditure. We registered the EI from all the daily meals and snacks
and estimated energy expenditure (EER) of each athlete during the assessment period (see Figure 3).
In general, the correlation between individual EI and EER data was significant (r = 0.551; P < 0.05) and their differences
were non-significant (t(37) = -1.02; P = 0.32). All these data reflect a trend towards an adequate energy balance in elite
Spanish athletes. However, the energy intake (EI) was lower in the female middle-distance athletes, surpassing the variability
between IE and EER by more than 10%.
Energy distribution (Kcal) was analyzed in its three macronutrients
(Figure 4) and the results were compared with the recommended acceptable macronutrient distribution range (AM DR) for carbohydrate,
protein and fat which are 45-65%, 10-30% and 25-35% of total calories respectively established by the FOOD AND NUTRITION BOARD
(2006). The percentages of energy coming from proteins fulfilled the recommendations, however although the provision of calories
from carbohydrate fell within the AMDR it was at the lower end of the range (50% of total calories), which is not desirable
for such an athletic population (ACSM; ADA & CD, 2000). Mean percentage of energy coming from lipids was located in the
upper limit both in male and female athletes, and the middle-distance runners of both genders exceeded the recommended range
(20-35%).
This general pattern of relative under-consumption of carbohydrates and over-consumption of fat has been found in other athletic
populations (HAWLEY et aI., 1995; HINTON et aI., 2004).
Figure 5 shows the average energy provided
by the different meals from the daily diet (breakfast, lunch, dinner and snacks), both in absolute terms and in percentage
of total daily energy
intake. Additionally, the graph provides us with the distribution of macronutrients in each meal.
This data allowed us to be more precise with the nutritional requirements of athletes in order to
establish guidelines for improved individual diet, which were reported and explained later to the athlete in a counselling
session.
We found that the most balanced meal was breakfast. The higher energy intakes occurred during lunch and dinner. However, these
meals turned out to be the most unbalanced in all groups, as there was low consumption of carbohydrates and high consumption
of fats, especially at dinner, when compared with the recommended ranges (AMRD) established by the FOOD AND NUTRITION BOARD
(2006).
Intake of energy, protein, carbohydrates and lipids were determined in absolute terms and
relative to body weight of the sample (Table 2). Although the significantly largest consumers of energy (F(1.36) = 11.5; P
< 0.05), protein (F(136) = 4.6; P < 0.05), carbohydrates (F(136) = 9,6; P < 0.05) and lipids (F(136) = 6.2; P <
0.05) in absolute values were male, we noted that those differences disappear when the intake values were related to the weight
of the athlete. In that case, the distribution of the diet was similar in females and males.
In Table
6, lipid consumption is shown in its different forms (saturated, monosaturated and polyunsatured fats), as well as the cholesterol
intake. A greater prevalence can be observed in saturated fats consumption, and lower polyunsaturated fat intake in all groups,
with the male group being the largest consumer of the three types of fats. The cholesterol intake in the female group approached
the limit recommended (300 mg/day) by the American Heart Association (KRAUSS et aI., 2000). However, the male group, particularly
speed and middle-distance athletes, showed consumptions well above the established level.
Water intake was determined by gender and athletic discipline (see Figure 6). Taking into account the recommendations for
males (3.7 I/day) and females (2.7 I/day), (GRAND-JEAN & CAMPBELL, 2004) requirements are not fulfilled in any male group
and or female long-distance runners. Having a deficit level of hydration could lead to problems such as declining performance
and increased muscle injury (ACSM, ADA, & CD, 2000; FOOD AND NUTRITION BOARD & INSTITUTE OF MEDICINE OF THE NATIONAL
ACADEMIES OF SCIENCE, 2006).
Fibre intake of our athletes was compared with the official recommendations of
the FOOD AND NUTRITION BOARD (2006), and we found that the female speed events group did not reach the described values for
women (25 g/day) and only the male middle-distance group reached the recommended values for men (35 g/day) (see Figure 7).
Low dietary fibre intake has been linked with numerous health problems, including coronary heart disease, gastrointestinal
pathologies and increased risk of constipation (INSTITUTE OF MEDICINE OF THE NATIONAL ACADEMIES OF SCIENCE, 2005). The fibre
intakes in our study were similar to those reported for other collegiate athletes (HINTON et al., 2004). A greater intake
of unprocessed whole grain
products, vegetables and fruits should be emphasized in this population. A recent review
has revealed that environmental interventions in schools show potential for positively affecting consumption of fruits and
vegetables among youth (FRENCH & STABLES, 2003).
The
low intake of vitamin E in athletes was most likely due to a low consumption of unsaturated fats in relation to saturated
fats. The RDA for vitamin E increased the requirements from 10 to 15mg of a-tocopherol per day (INSTITUTE OF MEDICINE OF THE
NATIONAL ACADEMIES OF SCIENCE, 2000). However, the necessity of this increase has been subject to debate (HORWITI, 2001).
Therefore, the "deficient" intakes of vitamin E in this and other studies with adolescent athletes (BOIOISSEAU et
al., 2002; HINTON et al., 2004; IGLESIAS-GUTIERREZ et al., 2005) must be viewed with some caution.
It is well known that vitamin D, in addition to calcium and magnesium, is an important micronutrient for optimal bone health
(INSTITUTE OF MEDICINE OF THE NATIONAL ACADEMIES OF SCIENCE, 1997). The lower intake of vitamin D was probably due to the
lower intake of dairy products especially in snacks and breakfast. Standardization of dietary requirements of vitamin D is
complicated by the fact that it can be obtained both exogenously (diet) and endogenously (from exposure of the skin to sunlight).
In practice, this athlete population is not at significant risk of vitamin D deficiency as they spend a large amount of time
training outside, and the resulting cutaneous production of vitamin D more than likely meets their requirements.
Finally, Table 8 shows the intakes for five minerals (Iron, Calcium, Magnesium, Phosphorus and Zinc) in absolute values and
in percentages of the ORI. Furthermore, the number of cases below the recommended values (J,#) are noted. It can be observed
that, in general, both males and females fulfilled the recommendations and only the female speed event athletes had a slight
deficit in Iron and Calcium.
Conclusions
From our results we can conclude the following:
1. Elite Spanish female athlete somatotypes indicate a lack of specialization in the speed events, since the athletes have
reduced mesomorphic components.
2. Elite Spanish male athlete somatotypes show a higher level of
specialization with low levels of mesomorphy.
3. The percentage of fat mass of elite Spanish athletes
is higher in females than in males for all the athletic disciplines.
4. The percentage of skeletal
mass of elite Spanish athletes is higher in male athletes but the percentage of muscle mass and residual mass show non-significant
differences.
5. The high correlation between EI and EER and the lack of significant differences between
individual results confirm, with some exceptions, an adequate energy balance in elite Spanish athletes.
6. Elite Spanish female middle-distance runners reported energy intakes below 90% of their estimated energy expenditures.
7. Carbohydrate intake fell well short of the minimum recommended level for athletes.
8. Lipids consumption is located in the upper limit both in male and female elite Spanish athletes, and the middle-distance
runners of both genders exceeded the recommended range of 35%.
9. The most balanced meal for elite
Spanish athletes is breakfast. Lunch and dinner provided higher energy intakes, but with high consumption of fats and low
consumption of carbohydrates.
10. The distribution of dietary macronutrients is more homogeneous
in female than in male elite Spanish athletes.
11. There is a great prevalence of saturated fats
consumption, and lower polyunsaturated fat intake in most of elite Spanish athletes.
12. Elite Spanish
speed event athletes surpass the recommended intake levels of cholesterol.
13. Most elite Spanish
male athletes and female long-distance runners do not meet water intake requirements.
14. Most elite
Spanish speed event athletes and male long-distance runners do not meet fibre intake requirements.
15. There are quite generalized deficits in vitamin E and D intakes among elite Spanish athletes and poor Folic Acid intakes
among elite Spanish female athletes.
16. There are specific/rare cases of deficits in mineral intakes
in elite Spanish athletes.
17. Energy intake does not correlate with fat accumulation in elite Spanish
athletes.
18. The amount of exercise correlates with reduction of body fat and increment of muscle
and skeletal mass in elite Spanish athletes.
Recommendations
The lack of studies on nutrition, the poor nutritional culture among elite athletes, and the relevance of this issue
to sport performance should encourage further research projects focused on this matter with larger samples and specific protocols
of athletes.
We have experienced that nutritional counselling for elite athletes is crucial for detecting
possible deficits and for providing them with guidelines for a more complete and correct diet that rewards the athletes for
their hard training sessions.
Finally, only as a suggestion, the food of the official hotels at international
competitions could be better controlled, and the athletes could be provided with information on available counselling.
FROM: IAAF NSA 4-2009
