TRAINING SPRINTERS

by Kevin O'Donnell, Speed Dynamics®
A publication of the AAF/CIF Track & Field Coaching Program
 

A Philosophy for Coaching the Sprint Events

    Basketball coaches have been known to say, "you can't coach height, so you better recruit it!" Similarly, coaches and athletes in all sports have surrendered to the belief that speed, like height, is a trait predetermined by genetics and something which cannot be improved much by training. The truth is that speed can be significantly improved through training and an awareness of the essential techniques common to the fastest sprinters. The development of running speed is not simply a gift of genetics. Speed is a skill, and it can be learned and developed by athletes at every level of competition.
    Our genetic endowments influence everything that we do. However, we are not limited to the level of abilities demonstrated by our ancestors The depth of performance potential waiting to be discovered in us all is limited only by our attitudes. The dramatic improvement of athletic skills and acquiring new ones are within the grasp of any performer. Success is found where coaches demonstrate this attitude of expectancy for the athletes they coach.
    Regardless of the race distance, the single most important performance component is speed. When an distance runner crosses the finish, they are not commended for their great aerobic capacity. The hurdler doesn't earn style points for technical merit or grace of execution. What matters most in races of all distances is the speed demonstrated from the start to the finish line. Therefore, every track athlete should have a speed development program regardless of their event.
    In the absence of a team-based speed development program, excellent sprint prospects are often overlooked. Coaches should not expect to see the skill of speed demonstrated by all of their best candidates for the sprint events before learning has even begun. If an athlete does not show obvious sprinting ability at an early age, or on the first day of training, coaches should not necessarily direct them toward some other event specialty. Over time, the ability to run faster and to sprint capably can be developed. Labeling athletes before their training has begun and limiting them to middle distance and distance events can be a tragic error.
 

The Speed Dynamics® Approach to Sprint Training

    SPEED DYNAMICS® is a moniker given to a new philosophy for developing sprinters. The traditional approach to training sprinters has emphasized only one of the body's physiological systems. The training target has typically been the muscular system. The assumption has been, "if you make an athlete stronger, they will become faster". While the importance of strength and power development should not be understated, strength gains will not produce proportional improvements in speed. In other words, doubling the weight you lift will not cut your race time in half.

Multi-track Training

    Since many physiological components contribute to faster running, many training targets demand attention, including:
      •  Strength and Power
      •  Dynamic Mobility
      •  Neuromuscular Coordination
      •  Event Specific Skill
      •  Energy System Fitness
    Though the primary training emphasis will change from day to day, some attention should be given to each of these components in every training session. One of these training targets will require a special daily emphasis.
    The nervous system is the single most important contributor to speed. Working as the body's control network, the nervous system is responsible for every subtle and obvious movement that the athlete makes. It is the nervous system which carries the intricate commands to each muscle that determines when and in what order it works. A powerful engine is useless if the ignition wires don't send the right signal to the cylinders at the proper time and order. In the same way, muscular strength is of no benefit if the nervous system does not coordinate its work. Consequently, training the neuro-muscular system is foundational to high level performance.
    The neuro-muscular system can be programmed much like a computer. With training, we can create an auto-pilot in the athlete which will guide them to faster finishing times.
    The body is an amazingly adaptable mechanism. It will do whatever you ask of it, providing that you speak a language it understands. The only programming language that the nervous system understands is repeated rehearsal. As you move through any activity, the body works to make most efficient the muscle sequencing and firing rate for the activity you have chosen. As you repeat an action or movement, the body locks-in the intricate muscle commands responsible for the task.
 

Practice Makes Permanent

    We are all familiar with the old cliché "practice makes perfect". In the science of speed development, however, it is more precise to say "practice makes permanent". This is especially true where the neuro-muscular system is concerned. Since the nervous system cannot distinguish between the results you desire and what you actually rehearse, it will simply master the movements you do most often.. So in training, whatever you do becomes permanently etched into the neuro-muscular system. Athletes must therefore avoid doing lazy drills, lackluster exercise routines, or general training that strays too far from the movements specific to their event specialty.

Reduce the Pursuit of Speed to a Measurable, Daily Mission

    Our primary objective, our mission each day in training should be to reduce, for every stride taken, the time spent on the ground or in the air by just one/one hundredth of a second. Whether in the 40 yard dash or the marathon, reducing the time you spend on the ground or the time you spend in the air is how gains in speed are made. Though seemingly incidental, the results of such a change will produce profound improvements in finishing times.
    For instance, in the 100 meter dash, as many as 50 strides are required to reach the finish line. If we reduce the time spent on the ground or in the air for each stride taken, by just one/one hundredth (0.01) of a second, the improvement at the finish is a dramatic five-tenths (0.5) of a second. Such a improvement is the difference between being an average sprinter and a candidate for a college scholarship.

The Whole/Part/Whole Teaching Method
    When the novice sprinter stands over starting blocks for the first time, the finish line seems a very long distance away. During the race, he will experience many different sensations and demands. For a sprinter to excel, the race must be broken down into easily learnable parts. Sprinting is usually thought of in terms of maximum velocity sprinting. However, a sprinter's top speed will last for a very short duration. Over the course of the entire sprint race, many other significant components can be identified. After each component is mastered individually in training, they can be reassembled to produce a successful race.
 

The Warm-up
    The competition warm up is often overlooked when evaluating the entire scope of a sprint race. However, it is essential for optimal performance readiness and injury prevention. While the purpose of the competition warm-up is to optimize readiness for racing, the purpose of a training session warm-up is quite different. The training session warm-up can be a most effective means of training, not merely a preparation for training. Later, we will identify several different training session methods including the active-dynamic, the continuous and the segment variety.
 

The Start
    The start is a series of complicated motor skills which when executed properly, produce the force necessary to overcome inertia and begin acceleration. Often occurring in less than one second, the start includes reaction time, force application and the first two running steps.
 

Acceleration
    This performance phase is the first of two links between the initial movements of the start and maximum velocity sprinting. The initial 8-10 steps represent this phase. The sprint mechanics of acceleration are very different from maximum velocity sprinting. The body position desired here is similar to the posture found when pushing a car or pulling a sled.

Transition
    This racing phase completes the link to maximum velocity sprinting. It must be differentiated from pure acceleration because of gradual and subtle mechanical changes in the running stride. Transition skills are among the last lessons learned by the developing sprinter.
 

Maximum Velocity
    Usually achieved after four to five seconds of utmost effort, the maximum velocity phase of the sprint race is characterized by the highest stride frequency and the most optimal stride length. The duration of maximum velocity is often as short as two to t/tree seconds. Maximum Velocity will be our first training focus.
 

Speed Maintenance
    What some refer to as the deceleration phase, we will call speed maintenance. This is a lesson in neuro-linguistics. We should not suggest, even subtlety, that our athletes are expected to slow down at any time in a sprint race! Rather, our performance objective is to maintain as much of one's top speed as possible. Of course, it is likely that a gradual decline in velocity will occur due to various elements of fatigue.
 

Finishing Form
    Many races have been lost or qualifying standards barely missed because of the lack of finishing technique. Perfecting this skill can reduce a sprinter's time by that critical one or two one hundredths of a second needed for victory.
 

Coast & Stop
    The truth is that the majority of sprinting injuries do not occur at the start, or during the race. All too often athletes turn-off their concentration while passing the finish line and allow the ground to apply abrupt breaking forces to their legs. Proper coast & stop techniques are essential in preventing post race trauma and injury.
 

Restoration & Recovery
    Sprinters are routinely required to run several events during the course of a single track meet. After the race is run, the sprinter's work is not finished. It is necessary to bring the body's physiological systems back to the basal level quickly and effectively prepare for either the next race, or tomorrow's training session.
 

Testing and Evaluation
    It is common for coaches to create a single master training plan for all of their sprinters. Certainly, we should expect some commonalties to exist when the training programs of sprinters are compared. However, only by respecting and addressing the unique qualities and objectives of each athlete can coaches lead them towards achieving their highest levels of performance.

    Just as a physician examines each patient to properly attend to their individual needs, so must the coach explore the personal capacities of each athlete under their charge. Before a training program can be developed, we should "test for success" and look past obvious, surface-level data to explore the depths of undiscovered potential. We will introduce tests which examine both psychological and physiological performance factors.

PSYCHOLOGICAL EVALUATION
    We must realize that even if a coach creates a perfect training program to develop the physiological potential of a particular athlete, little will be accomplished if that athlete's goals and perceptions do not line up with those of the coach. If a coach wants to win a national championship, but the athlete is just looking for a better fit on her bikini, the conflicting objectives will make for a difficult and unsuccessful relationship.
    The evaluation process should begin with the completion of an athletes' questionnaire. This questionnaire provides a coach with valuable insights which serve to identify characteristics unique to the athlete. The questionnaire should include sections which explore relevant statistical, personal, medical and volitional data. By understanding the unique circumstances surrounding the person, not just the performer, we are able to match appropriate training methods to individual needs
 

STATISTICAL DATA

    The survey process should begin with questions such as address, telephone number, date of birth, grade point average, and college board scores. Class schedules should also be noted. It is also helpful to list shoe and uniform sizes in this section. With a master list of this information on hand, emergency equipment problems can be minimized. Many more questions of this type can be included in this area of the questionnaire.
    One of the most important inquires from this portion of the questionnaire is the determination of training age. Training age is a measurement of athletic experience expressed in years. It is determined by totaling the amount of time spent in a structured athletic program.
    The athlete who participates in sport for only 3-months per year, over a total of 4 seasons has a training age of "one". Though a four year veteran, a training age of one year suggests that this athlete is still in athletic infancy. This important characteristic should greatly influence the training loads prescribed for any performer.
 

PERSONAL DATA

    This section of the questionnaire examines the home environment, family influences, personal achievements and employment status of the individual. It should be determined if one or both parents are in the home, or if the athlete lives with other relatives. How many brothers and sisters does the athlete have and what are their ages? Are ones parents or siblings athletes? Does the athlete have a nickname? Is the athlete a member of any clubs or organizations? Does the athlete have a part-time job.

    We should also explore other areas of the athlete's life which may have provided opportunities for success. Has the athlete earned any awards in academics, art, drama or other sports? This data serves to identify the intangible qualities they may possess as demonstrated in other activities. Qualities such as determination, dedication, persistence, loyalty and other virtues can be accounted for in this personal inventory. If these characteristics have been demonstrated elsewhere, they can transfer to any athletic endeavor.
 

MEDICAL DATA

    A medical history should be included in this questionnaire. The family doctor's name, date of last examination, any prescribed medications and allergies should be listed. Any injuries, especially those suffered in athletics, should be documented with their diagnosis, therapy and current status listed.
 

VOLITIONAL DATA

    Volition is defined as "the act or power of the will". In this section we should attempt to discover the motivation, tolerance and objectives of the athlete.
    It is best to begin by simply asking, "Why are you here?" The wide range of responses to this question may surprise you. Some athletes participate because they are looking to earn a scholarship, while others are attracted to being part of a team. Others may be compelled to participate by pressure from their parents and friends. They may have joined the team simply out of love for the sport or to improve their fitness. And of course, there are always those who are not really sure why they signed up! Perhaps they stumbled in your door by chance or out of curiosity.
    The novice athlete who is unconvinced of their athletic potential will demand a special rapport with the coach. The athletic infancy of a novice will require not only reduced training loads, but special encouragement as well. The experienced athlete with state meet aspirations will likely have a very different relationship with the coach, as well as significantly more challenging work loads.

FIELD TESTS
    The test course will consist of an acceleration zone and a 30-meter timing zone. Novice athletes should use a 15-meter acceleration zone, while more accomplished athletes can use a fly zone of 20-25 meters.

Evaluating Maximum Velocity
    The 30-meter fly test evaluates the maximum velocity capacity of the athlete. The athlete is instructed to sprint through the acceleration zone and the 30-meter action zone with maximum effort. He is timed, however, only from the start of the 30-meter test zone to its finish.

    When the distance run (30-meters) is divided by the time recorded, the answer reveals the maximum velocity of the athlete in terms of meters per second (the number of meters traveled in one second, while sprinting at full speed). If the split time were 3.0 seconds in the fly 30 test, the maximum velocity of the performer would be 10.0 meters per second.
    To date, the world's fastest men and women have posted marks of 12 and 10 meters per second respectively. Developing athletes will register values close to 10 meters per second for boys and 8 meters per second for girls.
 

Evaluating Acceleration
    Acceleration skills can be evaluated by conducting a standing 30-meter dash. Athletes should be instructed to sprint from the start of the 30-meter timing zone through the finish beginning from an upright, standing start. The watch should be started from the instant the rear foot leaves the ground, and stopped when the torso crosses the end of the timing zone. Only experienced athletes of at least college level should use a crouched start for this test.
    The acceleration skills of an athlete can be judged by reviewing the differences in performance between the 30-meter fly test and the standing 30-meter test. Subtracting the fly 30m time from the standing 30m time reveals the acceleration differential. Accomplished sprinters will register a 1.0 second differential, while a developing athlete's mark will falls into the 1.4 to 1.6 range. Lowering this differential is the best evidence of improvement in the acceleration phase.
 

Evaluating Sprint Endurance
    Sprint endurance can be determined by adding a second 30-meters to the existing timing zone for a 60-meter fly test. Athletes should be instructed to sprint through the acceleration zone and both 30-meter timing zones. The test effort should include a split time at 30-meters and a finish time at 60-meters.
    Sprint endurance can be evaluated by comparing the performance times recorded in both 30 meter test zones. If the first 30-meters was covered in 3.0 seconds, the second zone should measure no more than 3.09 seconds for the elite sprinter (a 3% variance). Developing sprinters may show a differential between the 30-meter splits of 5 - 6%.
 

Evaluating Speed Endurance
    The objective here is to measure the athlete's resistance to fatigue with a block-start or standing 150-meter test run. From the recorded time, we can calculate the mean or average velocity run over this distance by dividing 150 meters by the finish time. If the athlete posts a mark of 20 seconds, the mean velocity is 7.5 meters per second.
    A primary training objective should be to narrow the gap between a sprinter's mean and maximum. If the athlete has shown a maximum velocity of 10 meters per second and a speed endurance mean velocity of 7.5 meters per second, we can conclude that the athlete's current speed endurance capacity is 75% of maximum speed. We will want to increase this percentage through training.

Evaluating Special Endurance
    Special endurance can be evaluated by conducting a timed 300-meter run. Special endurance reflects an important metabolic capacity of the sprinter. Once again, the mean velocity is calculated. For example, if the athlete's time was 40 seconds, the mean velocity for special endurance is 7.5 meters per second. If the maximum velocity of the athlete measured 10 meters per second, we can conclude that the special endurance of the individual is 75%. Again, we will want to increase this value through training.
 

Measuring Aerobic Capacity
    Aerobic or work capacity refers to the amount of work an athlete is capable of producing. We can also identify the capability of expanding a sprinter's range of performance to include middle distance events with this test. The simplest aerobic capacity test is a 12-minute run recording the total distance covered during that time.
    Developing athletes will typically travel 2,200 to 2,600 meters (5.5 to 6.5 laps of a 400m track) in 12-minutes. Accomplished sprinters will cover 2,800 to 3,200 meters (7-8 laps) in this test. This test is most appropriate, however, for the developing athlete. The results of this run should also be expressed in terms of the mean velocity achieved. For example, if the athlete covers a distance of 2400 meters during a 12-minute run, endurance capacity is : 2400 meters divided by 720 seconds (12-minutes) = 3.33 meters per second.
    This mean or average velocity should then be used to evaluate current endurance capacity and to measure improvements over time.
 

Measuring Elastic Strength
    The vertical jump test measures elastic strength. From a squat jump, the athlete extends vertically covering as great a vertical distance as possible. The jump height can be calculated by attaching a measuring tape to a wall. The athlete should begin with arms outstretched overhead and noting the starting point. When the jump is executed, total distance covered above the starting mark is recorded. It is essential that both arms reach upward simultaneously to assure consistent results.
    A developing female athlete will record marks between 46cm and 56cm, while her elite counterpart will tally 61cm to 71cm. The developing male will demonstrate 61cm to 66cm, while the elite male will post a jump of 71 cm to 82cm.
 

Evaluating Elastic Power
    The 5-stride bounding test will provide insights into an athlete's power capacity. The athlete should be instructed to stand with feet aligned, and starting off both feet, to bound forward for a total of 5-strides. The object is to span as great a distance as possible. The best bounders will show high levels of negative foot speed, stable joint systems and little front/side distance at landing.
    Expect developing women athletes to show marks of 11.5 meters to 12.8 meters, while elite women will show a range of 12.8 meters to 14 meters. Developing men will bound between 12 meter and 13.5 meters, while elite men will post bounds of 14 meters to 15 meters.

Coaching the Mechanics of Sprinting

    The process of achieving faster sprint times begins with training to improve the sprinting mechanics of the athlete. This can be achieved through carefully choreographed drills. With repeated rehearsal, these sprint drills will create permanent patterns of movement which work like an auto pilot for the sprinter.
 

Dorsiflexion
    A key principal to understand is the importance of dorsiflexing the foot (pulling the toe-up) while sprinting. A visible technique in all great sprinters, this important joint position is exhibited throughout proper mechanics. It can be demonstrated with this exercise. Raise your arm as if to flex your biceps, but keep the muscle relaxed. Place your free hand on your biceps. Now turn your wrist-in (the walk like an Egyptian pose). What happens to the muscle? It seems to disappear. Now turn your wrist back to its original position. The biceps comes back to life! This exercise illustrates how joint positions determine muscle recruitment. If your wrist is in the wrong position, your biceps simply turns off and is useless to you.
    In the same way, ankle positions determine which muscles are active during running. When the ankle is dorsiflexed so that the toes are pulled up, you can feel the gastrocnemius (calf) muscle go to work. When functioning, it allows the athlete to pull their leg through the recovery phase (heel-to-butt) in less time during the running stride. The result is less time wasted in the air. Therefore, a key mechanical principle in running at any speed is KEEPING THE TOE-UP! When that same leg reaches to land on the next stride, once again the ankle should be dorsiflexed. With the toe-up at landing, the ankle works like a spring-board and muscle elasticity moves the athlete off the ground in less time. Less time on the ground, or in the air, gets every runner to the finish line faster.
 

Drills For Speed

Ankling Drill
    Objective: To limit time spent on the ground & develop an elastic response in the ankle joint.
    Beginning with a walk, with each small step taken, step no higher than the top of the opposite ankle. Emphasize the ankles remaining dorsiflexed throughout the drill. The look of the drill is that of a quick-shuffle action. As tempo increases, an elastic response in the ankle increases. Arms and legs should be active with the elbows loosely positioned at 90 degrees. In ankling, horizontal speed is insignificant. The focus is on limiting the time spent on the ground. Athletes should be instructed to listen to their steps! and try not to make a scuffing noise with their shoes.

    Ankling cues: "toes up", "quick feet", "hot ground", "fast shuffle", "spring board action".

Butt-Kick Drill
    Objective: To reduce the time necessary for recovering the foot from the ground to the buttocks by using the gastrocnemius muscle to fold the calf tightly against the hamstrings.

    The technical focus of the butt-kick drill is the ankle, which should be dorsi flexed throughout the exercise. Beginning with a jog, proper ankle position should be maintained as the heels quickly fold-up to the buttocks. A contact "slap" should be audible. When the drill is first introduced, the thigh can be close to perpendicular when the foot contacts the buttock. As skill increases, however, the knee should rise and the thigh will approach a parallel position as each heel slaps the buttock. Once again, avoiding scuffing the running surface is key. This drill is an excellent exercise to simultaneously improve a sprinter's arm-action by driving the elbows back quickly in sync with the legs.

    Butt-Kick Cues: "elbows back", "Toes up", "hands like hammers".

"A" Drills
    Objective: To improve efficiency of movement and to establish the best mechanical position in which to begin the next stride
    The names we tend to give exercises can distract us from proper execution. "High-knee Drills" are perhaps the best example. Getting the knee high isn't sufficient. Therefore, the "A" series avoids any confusion with the use of a generic name. In the "A" Drill, the toe, heel, and knees should come up simultaneously. The calf should be kept tightly folded against the hamstrings and thigh parallel to the ground as the foot steps-over the opposite knee. To complete the stride cycle, the thigh is then driven back down to and then past the perpendicular position at landing, and the foot pulls the ground back underneath the hips.
    The "A" Drill should begin with a march. As skill increases, the march can transition into a skip and then a run. The shoulders should remain above the hips throughout the A drill, and the athlete should avoid tilting the pelvis back like a drum major to make it easier to lift the knees.

    "A" Drill Cues: "toe up, heel up, knee up", "step over the opposite knee".

Fast Claw Drill
    Objective: To re-pattern neuro-muscular movements and create improved vertical leg speed.
    This exercise is performed one leg at a time. It begins with the athlete standing erect with the thigh of the active leg blocked in a parallel position, the toe should be up and ankle cocked, and the heel of the support leg off the ground. To begin, the thigh is driven down to a perpendicular position as fast as possible, and the foot recovered back up as quickly as possible. The knee joint remains loose allowing the lower leg to swing out naturally. The cyclical action used in previous drills applies here. The Fast Claw Drill can be performed continuously, for a designated number of repetitions or on command

"B" Drills
    Objective: To reduce breaking forces at ground contact by generating high levels of negative (backward) foot speed. (can also be used to simulate the sensation of hurdle clearance)
    The single characteristic which most distinguishes developing sprinters from elite sprinters is the ability to produce negative foot speed. This exercise allows athletes to experience the sensation of pulling the running surface back underneath them. When this negative or backward foot speed is at least equal to the velocity of the hips traveling forward, little deceleration occurs as the foot lands.

    The "B" Drill begins with the same action as the "A" series with the toe-up, heel-up, knee-up, and the foot stepping over the opposite knee. When the thigh blocks in a parallel position, it should be quickly re-accelerated back to a support stance. In the "A" series of drills, the speed of the leg through the stride cycle is the same. In the "B" Drill, the speed of thigh driving back toward the ground is noticeably faster than the recovery action and the front-side movement dominates the exercise.
Contrary to popular opinion, it is not necessary for the sprinter to try to kick-out the lower in front of him. This action will occur naturally as a result of the quick change of direction in the thigh position.
    Unlike the "A" series, "B" Drills should begin with a full skip, and progresses to the march which requires high levels of strength, flexibility and skill. The full series of "B" Drills includes a full skip with both legs active, a single leg "B" skip, a "B" run and a "B" march.

    "B" Drill Cues: "step over", "drive the thigh", "grab back".

Straight-Leg Shuffle
    Objectives: To develop high levels of negative foot speed and increase specific strength in the hamstrings and glutes.
    In this exercise, athletes should be told to forget they have a knee joint. Keeping the toes up, ankles dorsi flexed and shoulders positioned in front of the hips, the leg swings straight out, then quickly changes direction and drives back into the running surface. Athletes should feel the hips projected forward as they attempt to pull the ground back underneath them. Once the basic movement is mastered, the straight-leg shuffle can evolve into a straight-leg bounding action by applying greater negative force at each landing. Proper running posture should always be maintained.

    Straight Leg Shuffle/Bound Cues: "tear back the track", "pop the hips through".

Coaching the Maximum Velocity Phase

    Seeking improvements in the maximum velocity of the athlete should be our first training focus with sprinters. Gains in this performance phase are the foundation of success in sprinting. Though the duration of this segment of a sprint race is often only 2 - 4 seconds, its impact on finishing result is profound. Our training objective is to break through the dynamic stereotypes which limit performance and create new, improved motor patterns in the athlete. These new motor patterns will result in improved efficiency of movement, mechanical gains in force output and a reduction in time spent on the ground and in the air.
    In strength training, we understand that as an athlete's maximum capacity increases, every other degree of strength will benefit as well. Just as we designing training in the weight room based on a percentage of an athlete's maximum strength capacity, so should we address speed development. With improvements in our sprinters maximum velocity, measurable benefits will filter down to all their other movement skills.

    Since the maximum speed capacity of an athlete relies less on strength and power than other racing phases do, it makes sense to begin this training early in the season when strength is lacking. This begins with the most important drills the sprinter will ever perform.

Fast-Leg Drills
    Objectives: To develop vertical leg speed and neuromuscular coordination. This series is designed to improve the maximum speed of the athlete without any emphasis on horizontal movement. Here our focus is on improving the vertical component of sprinting.
 

Four-Step Fast-Leg Drill
    Horizontal speed is unimportant so this drill should begin with a slow jog, recovering one leg only, up as quickly as possible and back down again four times as quickly as possible. As always, emphasize "toe-up, heel-up, knee-up, step-over the opposite knee." The sprinter should feel as if he is leaving the support leg behind, never stepping forward with it. This drill is performed with sets of four repetitions separated with a few jogging strides using one active leg over a distance of 30-meters, and returning to the starting point drilling the other leg. It can progress to distances of 50 - 70 meters.
 

Alternate Fast Leg Drill
    Once both the left and right side fast leg drills are mastered individually, you can complex the skill with an alternate fast leg routine by taking two steps and fast-leg the other side. As skill increases, the jog progresses into a moderate run. The legs should function autonomously from the upper body. No jerking of the torso should occur during the fast leg action.
 

Continuous Fast-Leg Drill
    Instruct athletes to imagine one leg is dragging a weight from the ankle. (The sensation is not unlike wearing a bal/-and-chain as some prisoners once did.) The drill starts with a walk, with the support leg lagging behind, and fast-leg action on the other side on every stride. Balance is maintained by keeping the arms and legs synchronized.
 

Command Fast-Leg Drill.
    In this drill athletes move in a slow jog down the track. The coach shouts the number of fast­legs to be performed in a consecutive effort. The athlete performs the quota, and then returns to a jog waiting for the next number of fast-legs to be performed. One, two or three reps are appropriate. The side on which the fast leg is performed can also be designated, along with the number of reps desired, e.g. "2 left ... 1 right ... 3 right. "
 

Complex Fast-Leg Drills
    You can further complex fast-leg skills by using the routine with other drills like ankling, butt kicks, and straight leg bounding.

Training at Speed

    "Speed work" as commonly defined does not fit into the Speed Dynamics® philosophy. Traditional speed work sessions with bouts of 10-30 second runs do not replicate the actual short duration of maximum velocity sprinting. Since the neuromuscular system can only fire at maximum levels for only 2 to 3 seconds at a time, speed work for sprinters must reflect this reality.
 

Fly-In Sprints
    Fly-in sprints is an excellent training to develop maximum speed. The training course should consist of a "fly" or acceleration zone of 15-25 meters, and an "action zone" of 20-40 meters marked with traffic cones or hurdles on either side of the dedicated lane(s). The objective of these fly-in sprints is to capture the maximum velocity phase of the sprinter's race so that specific improvements can be made. The speed of the run increases gradually through the fly zone as the action zone is approached. The action zone represents the maximum velocity phase of a sprint race. Transit time through the action zone should never be more than 2- 4 seconds.
    The length of the action zone should be based on the maximum velocity capacity of the athlete as measured in the fly 30m test. The developing sprinter will typically begin training with an action zone of 20-meters. More accomplished sprinters can utilize a 30-meter action zone. In time, the length of these respective zones can increase to 30-meters for the developing sprinter and 40-meters for the accomplished sprinter.
    During acceleration, the sprinter should breath normally, but when the action zone is reached, the athlete should hold his breath for the first 4-6 strides and sprint as fast as they can through the end of the action zone.
    The coach should always cue the specific mechanics desired during maximum velocity sprinting. Since the time available to cue the athlete and prompt a response is short, cues should be composed of no more than two words or syllables. "Toe up", "step over", "grab back" are best.
 

Breath Control
    One of the unusual nuances of this training is the breath control previously described. Research has shown that holding ones breath actually increases the ability to apply force. This action, which has been traced back to the "fight or flight reflex" of our ancient ancestors, causes physiological changes advantageous to explosive movement to take place. Evidence suggests that instinctively, we have always been aware of this advantage. From the attempt to pry loose the stubborn lid on a jar, to the Herculean effort of a maximum lift in the weight room, holding ones breath makes the task easier to perform by increasing thoracic and interabdominal pressure which acts as an air splint for the spine. Stabilization of the spine improves the ability to apply force. Furthermore, research shows that breath control increases intra-cranial blood pressure, which leads to an improved ability to recruit motor units.

    In short, the ability to apply big forces to the track improves when holding the breath. However, breath control is useful only if it can be implemented practically. The use of breath control in fly-in sprints and the Ins-and-Outs training to be discussed later, will lay the foundation for a new race model over the course of the season. This model will allow new sprinting skills developed in training to be transferred to competitive sprinting.
    Another advantage of using breath control techniques is the improved awareness it prompts in the sprinter. Holding one's breath is a dramatic cue that signals the athlete that a special focus is now required. It also creates a definite sense of urgency about reaching the normal breathing check-point. Coach will find their sprinters will no longer coast through a sprint session without the attention to detail required for success in these events.
 

Sets, Reps & Recovery Notes for Maximum Speed Training
    Fly-in sprints should be introduced with a single set of 3 repetitions. As training continues, this can progress towards a total of three sets with three repetitions in each set. For the developing sprinter, total volume should not exceed 500 meters per week. For the accomplished sprinter, 800-900 meters per week is appropriate.
    Recovery times for metabolic training have long been the subject of debate. For speed work, however, full recovery is appropriate regardless of the period of season. The operative word here is speed When speed development is the goal, full recovery is a required between bouts of running. Energy system training is an altogether different matter.
    While the opposite would seem to be true, the developing sprinter generally requires less recovery time between repetitions and sets since a young person's neurological system is more pliable than an adult. This is because novice athletes have not developed the ability to fully stress their nervous systems as more accomplished athletes have. Another consideration for adjustments in recovery time for the developing athlete is the short attention span typical of this group. Often the novice cannot maintain training focus through long recovery phases. In this instance, shorter recoveries may be wise when all is considered.
    Two minutes recovery between reps and ten minutes between sets is a good starting point for developing athletes. At the elite level, as much as ten minutes between reps and twenty to thirty minutes between sets may be appropriate.
    Speed development sessions can be utilized two to three times per week. Gains in the performance of the neuromuscular system, however, are contingent on sufficient time being allotted for restoration. Coaches should always allow 48-72 hours of recovery time between maximum speed training sessions, depending on their duration and the training age of the athlete.
    Coaches can measure the readiness of the athlete's neuro-muscular system with a simple diagnostic test. Just as the endurance athlete tests readiness by monitoring heart rate data, the sprinter can judge the status of the neurological system with the use of a stopwatch. This is done by the athlete starting the watch and immediately clicking-off as many splits as possible in ten seconds and noting the range of split times registered and their consistency. Typically, the athlete will produce split times of .16 to .20 when rested. If the neurological system is fatigued, the split times increase and become more inconsistent.

    If sufficient recovery of the athlete(s) is in doubt, prior to a speed training session this stop­watch test can offer valuable feedback. If the performer shows a marked increase in the split times registered from previous trials, it may be wise to postpone the speed work session until the next day.
 

Acceleration

    Once the development of the maximum velocity capacity has begun, the next sprint training focus should be improving acceleration. The objective of the acceleration phase is to reach maximum velocity as quickly and efficiently as possible. The acceleration phase, from a mechanical point of view, must be broken down into a "pure acceleration phase" and a "transition phase." Pure acceleration begins after the first two steps out of the blocks, and blends into the transition phase after the tenth or twelfth step. The duration of the transition phase is typically 6 to 8 strides.
 

Characteristics
    The primary characteristics of the pure acceleration phase is the relationship between the hip and foot of the sprinter. Unlike sprinting at maximum velocity, accelerating requires the feet of the sprinter to hit the track behind the hips in the earliest strides. With each additional step, the sprinter assumes a more upright posture. The distance between the center of mass and base of support continues to lessen until the feet land directly under the hips.
    During acceleration, the joint angles at the hip and knee are much sharper prior to ground contact when compared to maximum velocity. The direction of forces applied are more horizontal than vertical in this racing phase. Correct acceleration mechanics require maximum acceleration of the thigh over its full range of motion, meaning the knee comes up fully and quickly. Rather than the cyclical action of top speed sprinting, the shins move with a "back and forth" piston-like action in acceleration.
    The knee of the sprinter remains in front of the foot, both in the recovery and drive phases and the feet remain close to the ground. The corresponding angles of the shin and torso should be the same with respect to the ground. The ankle is always cocked in anticipation of ground contact being made with great force.
    Acceleration and maximum velocity not only differ in the direction of the forces applied to the track, but also in the origin of those forces produced. In acceleration, much of the force is generated from muscle contraction rather than elastic response. This is true in all events requiring acceleration.
    Stride length in the initial two steps of block clearance and the ensuing eight to ten steps of pure acceleration increases at an amazingly regular rate. A range of increase of 10 - 15 centimeters is not uncommon. A slight decrease in stride length is found near the end of the phase. This increment is directly related to the sprinter's leg length and strength and power to body weight ratios. Surprisingly, stride frequency is extremely high for the elite sprinter during the acceleration phase. Here too, we see an incremental increase in the stride rate of the athlete. Only in acceleration do we see stride rate and stride frequency increase this way.

Improving Acceleration

    As coaches, we can improve acceleration skills of our sprinters in three ways:
      •  #1. Give task-specific cues. Offering concise instructions to the athlete will help to actualize the precise body positions and mechanics sought in this racing phase.
      •  #2. Increase the general and specific strength and power capacities of the athlete. Many different means of training can be utilized to accomplish this objective.
      •  #3. Re-program the neuro-muscular system. We can choreograph the precise movements of acceleration through specific training and regular rehearsal.
 

Task-Specific Cues
    Significant study and preparation are required in all areas of a coach's responsibilities. Yet, the coaching capacity that may influence the sprinter and their performance the most is usually the one allotted the least amount of thought or preparation. The way in which desired results are communicated to the athlete is perhaps the most important single component in the coach­athlete relationship.
    The words coaches speak create specific visual images. It is these images which will prompt action by the athlete. Whatever mental picture the sprinter is provided with, whether it is desirable or not, will be acted upon. Since the mind follows the direction of its current thought, the coach must be exact and precise with cues given to a sprinter.
    In training and competition, the athlete should be reminded of the specific motor responses needed. This reminder is not new information. Instead the cue will call up in the mind of the athlete the mental stimulus to be acted upon. Since each racing phase has its own inherently unique characteristics and demands, the instructions offered to the sprinter must reflect this diversity. Each racing phase requires its own set of specialized cues.
    In contrast to the vague clichés common in coaching jargon, the cues given to sprinters must describe a specific action which paints a universally recognized picture. The frequently used cue for acceleration of "stay low" is an example of the misdirection many coaches inadvertently offer to athletes. This cue provides the sprinter with a distorted mental image of the body position required in acceleration. Bending at the torso as if ducking under a tree branch is a common but undesirable body position in sprinters. No doubt the "stay low" cue has much to do with it. Instead, we want the sprinter to lift the chest up so that a power line is created from the ankle of the support leg through the torso and head. In this way the body lines up at about 45 degrees with respect to the track.
    More appropriate cues would include "stab back" or "push the track behind you". These descriptions relate to the direction of forces and foot placement required for acceleration. The following recommended drill sequences for acceleration also serve to emphasize the unique characteristics of this racing phase. The sprint coach is continually challenged to develop new cues to create the responses he seeks. He can signal the high frequency desired in acceleration with cues like "hot ground", "quick feet" or even generic sounds that emulate the rhythm and tempo of the reoccurring foot strikes. Hand claps with an ever increasing rhythm, for instance, make that point.

    When an sprinter describes how their race is to be run, the words they choose can be very telling. If their account of the actions of the race are general and nondescript, we can expect this to be reflected in their technical execution on the track. Athletes should be regularly questioned to determine the state of their technical understanding of their events.
    If language seems to be failing either the coach or the athlete, pencil and paper can help. When uncertainty exists regarding the sprinter's imagery of racing techniques, ask him to draw stick figure examples of the desired movements and body positions throughout the various sprint racing phases. This transfer of the athlete's mental image of technical performance characteristics to paper will give a coach a clear view into the minds-eye of that sprinter.
    Another method to clarify an athlete's grasp of specific technical cues and concepts is to carefully observe how he assists younger, inexperienced sprinters. A person can only teach what he knows himself. So when one athlete instructs another, their expertise is revealed. Observing the athlete as a teacher is an acid test of their technical awareness.
 

Training for General & Specific Strength

    The ability to accelerate will improve in direct proportion to gains in strength. We can increase the general strength and power capacity of the sprinter with many different means of resistance training. All of these methods are intended to increase the amount of force the athlete can apply and the integrity of the pillar and the joint systems, and to limit the time spent on the ground.
    Simple jogging is the place to begin. Even a slow jog requires the performer to move against the resistance of gravity. As a foundation of general conditioning is developed with easy running, we can increase the demand on the athlete by changing the grade of the running surface.
    Running up a hill or incline requires the athlete to lift the recovered leg through a greater range of motion than on a flat surface. The athlete must therefore exert a force against the ground sufficient to lift the center of mass somewhat higher than normal. The result is an increase in strength and power where the sprinter needs it most.
    Multi-throws training is another excellent means to improve general and specific strength and power values. "Multi-throws" are exercises which combine movements through various ranges of motion followed by throwing an implement for distance using shots and medicine balls. One example of a multi-throw routine is the "between the legs forward throw". Holding the implement in both hands, the athlete bends forward and swings it back between the legs, then quickly changing directions, swings it up underhanded for as great a forward distance as possible.
    In this type of exercise, the body mass of the athlete increases by the weight of the implement held. As that body moves, stressors to the muscular system increase. Finally, when the ball is launched, a great force must be applied into the ground. The athlete also must extend into the same body position desired in acceleration. This combination of increased loading, greater force application and desirable body position are all obvious benefits for acceleration training.

    Sprinting with a weighted vest or weighted pants is another proven method of enhancing strength and power. Once again, we increase the load to the athlete's sprint systems by adding weight. By increasing the mass of the sprinter, we effectively expand the stimulus to the stretch shortening phenomena. The result is an improvement in general and specific strength and power and a reduction in time spent on the ground.
 

Choreographing the Movements of Acceleration
    As we work to improve the strength and power of our sprinters, we must simultaneously develop the specific skills of the acceleration phase. These skills are best introduced through the following drills and exercises. Each is designed to teach proper body position and the desired direction of forces applied to the track. Repeated rehearsal of these routines will refine the motor pattern of the athlete to adapt to the unique demands of this racing phase.

A LEARNING PROGRESSION FOR DEVELOPING ACCELERATION SKILLS

Acceleration March Drill
    Objective: To teach the desired body position and piston-like movement of the legs.
    Start with the athlete standing approximately one and one half meters from a wall or other stationary object. With the feet fixed in place, have the athlete lean against the wall placing the hands flat against it. The body position achieved should now be approximately 45-degrees with respect to the ground.
    On your command, the athlete begins to march by recovering one leg up with the ankle dorsi flexed and knee rising high to a point above waist level. Then the other leg is similarly recovered while the first is returned to exactly the same position on the floor. This march should continue for a 10 second interval. The pillar should remain in line with the support leg throughout the exercise. The movement of the legs is not cyclical as is the case in maximum speed running. Look for a back-and-forth leg action with the knees remaining in front of and above the ankle at all times.
    While this exercise will test pillar strength, it is intended most to familiarize the athlete with the critically important body position unique to acceleration.
 

Wall Sprints:
    Objectives: 1) To mimic the sprinting action found in acceleration without fighting the forces of gravity. 2) To improve stride frequency and refine the direction of forces applied to the track.
    Begin by assuming the same position as in the acceleration march drill. The athlete recovers one leg up into the ready position. This leg should be the same one that will be positioned in the front pedal of the starting blocks. This "ready" stance requires that the ankle on the recovered leg is dorsiflexed, knee is up above waist height and torso is in line with the support leg.
    The coach then announces in advance how many total steps are to be taken in succession. It is recommended to begin with sets of 3-steps. Holding his breath, the athlete sprints through 3 steps, exhales and holds his position. The instruction for the next set comes right away. Three continuous sets is standard. Once mastery is achieved, 5-steps then 7-steps, etc. can be utilized in each set.

Continuous Wall Sprints:
    Objective: To promote pillar strength, stride rate, and energy system fitness while replicating the movements of acceleration.
    Here again, the athlete assumes the same ready position as previously described. On the coach's command, the athlete begins to sprint continuously. The focus is on achieving the highest possible frequency while moving the legs through a complete range of motion. The duration of exercise begins with five second intervals. As competency increases, the time should be increased up to ten seconds or more.
 

PARTNER DRILLS

Hip Hold:
    Objective: To support the athlete so that desired body position and movements of acceleration can be rehearsed at sprint speeds.
    A spotter stands behind and places his hands on the hips of his partner who leans forward with a flat back and firm abs. The spotter steadies his body position. On the coach's command, the athlete begins to pump his legs and arms in the desired piston-like motion sought in acceleration. His body position is maintained due to the support of his spotter. After four to ten steps, the athlete is released and continues to sprint through a designated distance of thirty meters. Regardless of the number of steps taken, when the spotter can no longer feel the weight of his partner, he lets him go! If he cannot feel the weight of his partner, we know the sprinter has lost the desired body position.
 

Face to Face:
    Objectives: To increase forces applied to the track and identify when desired body position is compromised.
    In this exercise, the spotter faces the his partner and supports forward body lean by placing his hands on the shoulders and accepting his partner's weight. On cue, the athlete begins to sprint with proper acceleration mechanics. Arm action should be encouraged. Total distance is thirty meters. When the spotter can no longer feel the weight of the athlete, let them go and step aside. The athlete will likely revert back to old bad habits and allow the legs to become perpendicular at some point in the exercise.
 

Face and Chase:
    Objectives: To develop transition skills.
    The athlete begin as in the previous drill. After 2 to 6 seconds of action, the spotter turns away from the performer and sprints to the finish thirty meters away. The athlete now becomes the pursuer. The goal is to catch the spotter before the finish line. The spotter of course will attempt to out-sprint his partner.

Face, Chase and Race:
    Objectives: To improve transition skills, pillar strength, and energy system fitness.
    This final progression in partner drills adds another element to the Face & Chase routine. Designate as before a starting and finish line 30-40 meters apart. Begin the exercise as before. The spotter supports the athlete with his hands on his shoulders. The partner drives out against the resistance aggressively. 2 to 6 seconds after the exercise begins, the spotter turns away from the partner and attempts to sprint across the finish without being caught from behind.
    The new element to this exercise is that when the spotter is tagged by his partner's hand, both athletes stop, turn 180-degrees and race back to the starting line. If the spotter is not caught before reaching the finish, they both turn around after the spotter reaches the finish line and sprint back to the starting line.
    Many benefits can be derived from this drill. First, the competitive aspect of the drill improves its intensity of performance. Second, the sprint systems respond to the contrasting demands of resistance, braking, change of direction and re-acceleration. Finally, it shows that serious training can be achieved in a game-like setting and hard work and fun can go together.
 

The Start

    Who Invented the Starting Block?
    You might think the starting blocks used today were created by a great scientist, or coach, or perhaps an athlete. Wrong! The first starting blocks were produced by a groundskeeper! In the days before the introduction of synthetic track surfaces, competition was contested on cinder or clay tracks. In order to produce the best start, athletes would dig two small holes in the track to accommodate the push-off necessary to overcome inertia. This technique worked well. It did however prove to be quite inconvenient for the man who was responsible for grooming the track surface. Imagine having to fill those holes after each race only to have the performers in the next round dig it up again.
    The first starting blocks were not created to produce a better start. They were constructed to preserve the running surface. The starting blocks utilized today are not much different from the first models introduced decades ago. The science of optimizing the use of the blocks, however, has progressed tremendously. Next, we will explore the best means to maximize starting ability from both the crouched and standing start positions.
 

Where to begin
    Though the "start" begins a race, we should not begin our training focusing on this racing segment. Starting skills require great amount of strength and power and neuro-muscular coordination. Once the athlete has begun to develop some of these capacities, then work in and around starting blocks is appropriate.

    Before starting skills can be taught, we must first determine the power-side and the smart-side of the athlete. As infants, our neurological development takes on a distinct pattern. One side of the body becomes the primary mover, while the other works in support. As a baby eats, one hands brings food to the lips while the other holds the plate steady. We write with the smart hand and hold the paper steady with the power-side hand. We kick with our smart-side leg, while the power leg supports all of the body weight.
    Generally, the hand you write with and the foot you kick with represent the smart-side of the body. The smart-side foot is placed behind the athlete in the starting position. The power-side will generate most of the force from the front position.
 

The Learning Progression
    Starting skills should be introduced with the upright position first, and evolve towards the crouched start. Repeated studies show that athletes who lack the strength, power, or technical skill needed for the crouched start will actually produce slower sprint times with starting blocks than without one! In competition, athletes should be allowed to use only those starting skills which have been mastered. This may require starting blocks not being used initially.
 

CATEGORY ONE: Falling Starts
    The common thread running through this category of drills is the body position assumed prior to the first movement. The athlete will allow gravity to pull them forward until the torso is at about 55-degrees with respect to the running surface. As this position is achieved, the athlete explosively begins to sprint and continues through a distance of at least 20-meters.
 

The Upright Falling Start
    The power-side foot is positioned just behind the starting line, body weight on his shoe's spike plate, shin pointing forward so that the knee is directly over the foot. The smart-side shoe grips the surface with the spike plate and is positioned behind the body. For balance, the arms are in sync with the legs with the right hand & left foot and left hand & right foot working in tandem.
    With pressure being applied through both the power-side and smart-side spike plates, the athlete should feel his hamstrings and gluteus muscles begin to fire as he allow his body to drift forward. Just before balance is lost, the athlete applies maximum forces off both feet and explosively accelerates forward. The skills learned in acceleration training are implemented here. The breath is held for the first few strides of this starting action. The desired application of forces is largely
horizontal so hip extension on the power-side is critical. .
    Upright Falling Start cues: "pressure on the spike plates", "push from the hip".

The Squat Falling Start
    Assuming the same position as in the last drill with the feet set and arms synchronized, the hips lower into a squat position. The power-side leg (front leg) should be bent at the knee in a 90­degree angle, and the forward fall executed as before. As the desired body position is reached, the athlete should explode into an acceleration pattern. If the athlete finds it difficult to explode forward from this "squat" position, they are clearly unprepared to execute a start from staring blocks in a crouched stance until additional gains in strength and power are made.

    Squat Falling Start cues: "lower the hips", "fully extend the power side".

The 3-Point Start
    Here the ready position requires the power-side foot to be 4-6 inches from the starting line. In the squat stance, the smart-side or forward hand is lowered to the starting line. A bridge position is created by the hand with its thumb inside and four fingers held closely together outside. The other hand is placed on the power-side hip. The athlete begins to fall forward and quickly executes the start sequence with the smart-side hand thrown back, and the other hand moving up and forward. The power-side leg must push hard and the smart-side leg must press off the ground quickly.
    Three Point Start cues: "push, press", "elbow back".

The 4-Point Start
    Using the same ready position same as the previous drill, both hands should rest on the power side knee, the shoulders dipped to knee-level. The hips remain high and the athlete should feel
the stretch in his power-side hamstring.
    At the "set" command, both hands should drop to the starting line. The hands assume the bridge position and the distance between the hands should be the same as the grip distance in the bench press exercise. As force is applied against the ground through both feet, the shoulders and hands will counteract the forces applied by the legs, hips and gluteus. Holding his breath, the athlete explodes out with double-leg drive. The sensation is like that of a tightly wound spring that is freed.
    Four Point Start cues: "double leg drive", "chest up".

CATEGORY TWO: Standing Starts

    Using a "standing start" position from the starting blocks was pioneered early in the twentieth century and this technique has been used randomly by the generations of sprinters that followed. The latest resurgence of this method began in 1988. Charles Moye developed a starting block specifically designed for a standing start. It has been used extensively in training and competition on the high school level. Though the implement is legal on all levels of competition, it has rarely been used in elite level competition.
 

Rationale for Using the Standing Start
    The Standing Start technique allows most athletes to assume a set position where the maximum amount of force can be applied in the least amount of time. Athletes who can move more weight in less time from a quarter squat position than a half or full squat in the weight room should use the standing start. Those who can lift twice their body weight from a half squat are well-suited for the crouched start.
    Standard starting blocks with adjustable pedals can be set to accommodate the Standing Start. However, stability and ease of use is an advantage of the Moye Block which was designed only for this technique.

"Ready" Command Position
    The front pedal of a standard set of staring blocks should be set four to six inches from the starting line. The feet should load (curl) the toes elastically and be positioned so the shoe is in touch with both the track surface and the block pedal. The rear foot shoes should be placed the same way on to the rear block pedal. Both hands rest on the front knee which should not be bent, but merely unlocked. The shoulders should be lowered to knee-level and the hips remain in a tall position.
 

"Set" Command Position
    IAAF rules require both hands to be in touch with the ground prior to the start for all races up to and including 400-meters. National High School Federation rules, however, have no such requirement. Therefore the high school sprinter can use a 3-point "set" stance while the college level athlete must use a 4-point starting position. The benefits of the 3-point stance include one hand being free to hold a baton comfortably, and less flexibility being required. The 4-point stance allows more force to be applied prior to the start which is required to reduce block clearance time.
    At the set command, in the 3-point start the smart-side hand is placed on the track surface, and the other hand on the hip. In the 4-point start, both hands are in touch with the track in a bridge position, bench press grip distance apart. Force should be applied through both feet, keeping the hips high and holding that last breath until the fourth step in the acceleration pattern.
 

CATEGORY THREE: The Crouched Start

    The pedals on the starting blocks should be positioned so that the power-side pedal is in front, and the smart-side pedal is back. Each athlete should begin with the front pedal placed two heel­to-toe foot lengths from the starting line, and the rear pedal positioned one and one-half foot lengths from the front block. This simple guideline is very accurate because of the relationship between an athlete's leg length and shoe size whose ratio is remarkably consistent in all humans.
    Facing the finish line, the athlete should squat down and back into the blocks as if loading a spring. The spike plate of both shoes should share contact with the track surface and the block pedal so the resulting "curling" of the toes creates an elastic response. The hand are once again placed in a bridge position, bench press grip apart. The head should not bow, but rather should remain in alignment with the back.
 

Set Command
The athlete should Inhale as he applies big forces to the block pedals, then lift the hips up and lock in that position by countering the force of the legs, hips and glutes with the shoulders, arms and hands. The strongest athletes will show a 90-degree angle at the knee on the power-side leg. Developing performers should allow for a more open angle stance.
 

Block Clearance
    At the gun, many actions must occur simultaneously and the sprinter should continue to hold his breath so that maximum forces can be applied to press off of the back block pedal and quickly recover the smart leg. The back foot should stay low and close to the track. The power-side leg executes complete hip extension which thrusts the body forward. The angle of the power-side leg should is about forty five degrees when fully extended. Full hip extension is critical.

    While the power-side foot is pushing off, the smart-side arm is thrown back, palm up and extended at the elbow. The other arm should come up and forward with the chest as it rises upward. The power-side arm will take a position just above the head as if shading the eyes from the sun.
    When fully recovered, the smart-side foot is driven back into the track surface. It should land approximately five foot lengths forward from the rear pedal of the blocks with the hips positioned directly above the foot. Extension of the smart-side hip then begins while the power­side leg is recovered.
 

The Finish

    Finish technique is a skill which should be taught, developed, and practiced. Acquiring this skill can often make the difference between winning and losing a sprint race. Here are two finish techniques which should be rehearsed often in training.
 

The Trip Finish
    Within five meters of the finish line, the sprinter throws both arms back, with palms up. The arms should approach a parallel position to the track surface. The head is turned to one side or the other so that the ear is flat to the track. The top of the head points across the finish. This unique body position forces the torso forward projecting it across the finish line. The athlete must continue to drive through the finish holding this position.
 

The Swim Finish
    This technique requires the sprinter to mimic a side stroke two strides from the finish. The forward arm is that which is furthest from the auto-timing camera. The head turns and looks in the direction of the camera. The other arm is thrown backward. This body position rotates the torso just enough to provide a bigger target for the finish photo. The Swim Finish is recommended for use when the competitors are expected to be closely bunched at the finish. This is most often true in indoor competition for the short sprint events.
    Finish form should be rehearsed every time starts are practiced by setting a finish line at about 20 meters from the start. Rather than leisurely coasting to a stop after a trial rep in from the starting blocks, athletes should blast through the finish line using the technique prescribed by the coach. Hundreds of finish rehearsals can be practiced during the course of the training season this way.