The
Yearly Training Plan: Periodization of Strength
The yearly training plan is as important a tool for achieving long-range athletic goals as the microcycle is for short-term
planning. It must be based on the concept of Periodization of Strength and employ its training principles as guiding precepts.
An organized and well-planned annual training program is a requirement for maximizing strength improvements.
A primary objective of training is for the athlete to reach peak performance at a specific time, usually for the main competition
of the year. To achieve this high level of performance, the entire training program must be properly periodized and planned
so that the development of skills and motor abilities proceeds logically and methodically throughout the year.
Periodization
Periodization comprises two basic components. The first component, periodization of the annual plan, pertains to how the year
is divided into various training phases. The second component is the Periodization of Strength, or how to structure strength
training to maximize its effectiveness in meeting the needs of the specific sport.
Periodization
of the Annual Plan
The first component of periodization consists of breaking down the annual plan into shorter, more manageable training phases.
Such division enhances the organization of training and allows the coach to conduct the program systematically. In most sports,
the annual training cycle is divided into three main phases of training: preparatory (preseason), competitive (season), and
transition (off-season). Each training phase is further subdivided into cycles, the most important being the microcycle. The
duration of each training phase
depends heavily on the competition schedule, as well as on the time needed to improve
skills and to develop the dominant biomotor abilities. During the preparatory phase, the coach's primary objective is to develop
the physiological foundations of the athletes, whereas during the competitive phase, it is to strive for perfection according
to the specific demands of competition.
Figure 6.1 illustrates the periodization
of the annual plan into phases and cycles of training. This particular plan has only one competitive phase, so athletes have
to peak only once during the year. Such a plan is called a mono-cycle or single-peak annual plan. Not all sports have only
one competitive phase. For example, track and field, swimming (in some countries), and several other sports have indoor and
outdoor seasons or two major competitions for which athletes must peak. Such a plan is usually called a bi-cycle or double-peak
annual plan (table 6.1).
Periodization of Strength
In planning, the coach should be more concerned with deciding what kind of physiological response or training adaptation will
lead to the greatest improvements than with deciding what drills or skills to work on in a given training session or phase.
Once the first decision is made, it will be easy to select the appropriate type of work that will result in the desired development.
Only by considering these overriding physiological factors will the coach be able to choose an approach that will result in
the best training adaptation and ultimately lead to increases in physiological capacity and improved athletic performance.
Such an innovative approach is facilitated by periodization. Recall from chapter 1 that the purpose of strength training for
sports is not the development of strength for its own sake. Rather, the goal is to perfect either power (P), muscular endurance
(M-E), or both according to the needs of each sport. The Periodization of Strength, with its specific sequence of training
phases, is the best approach for achieving that goal, as will be demonstrated in this chapter. As illustrated by table 6.2,
Periodization of Strength has certain phases with specific strength training objectives.
Phase One: Anatomical Adaptation Phase
Following a transition phase, during
which athletes usually do very little strength training, it is scientifically and methodologically sound to start a strength
program aimed at adapting the anatomy for the future strength program. The main objectives of this phase are to involve most
muscle groups and to prepare the muscles, ligaments, tendons, and joints to endure the subsequent lengthy and strenuous training
phases. Strength training programs should not focus on only the legs or arms. Focus on strengthening the core area-the abdominals,
lower back, and spinal column musculature. These sets of muscles work together to ensure that the trunk supports the legs
and arms during all movements and also act as a shock-absorbing device for many skills and exercises, especially landing and
falling.
When preparing athletes, especially young ones, for the strength training phases to follow,
start from the core section of the body and work toward the extremities. In other words, before strengthening the legs and
arms, concentrate on developing the supporting links between them-the spinal column and the trunk in general.
Additional objectives for anatomical adaptation (AA) are to balance strength between the flexors and extensors surrounding
each joint; balance the two sides of the body, especially the shoulders and arms; perform compensation work for the antagonistic
muscles; and strengthen the stabilizer muscles.
In many cases, athletes tend to overwork areas that
are already strong by performing only exercises they know well. They avoid working on weaker areas or performing exercises
at which they are not as proficient. To compound the problem, some coaches and instructors, through either misunderstanding
or misapplying the principle of specificity, prescribe only exercises specific to the skills the athletes use most in the
selected sport. Consequently, a balanced development between body parts or muscle groups is rarely achieved.
In some cases, balanced development between agonistic and antagonistic muscles is impossible because some agonistic muscles
are larger and stronger than others. For instance, the knee extensors (quadriceps) are stronger than the knee flexors (hamstrings).
The same is true for the ankle plantar flexor (gastrocnemius) and extensors (tibialis anterior). Since activities such as
running and jumping are heavily involved in most sports, the knee extensors and ankle plantar flexors are exposed to more
training. It is important, however, for professionals in the field to be aware of the agonistic-antagonistic ratios and attempt
to maintain them through training. If they neglect to do so, and the agonists, the prime movers of given sports skills, are
constantly trained, the imbalance will likely result in injuries (for example, rotator cuff injuries in baseball).
The transition and anatomical adaptation phases are ideal for balanced development of antagonistic muscles since there is
no pressure due to competition. Little information exists regarding the agonistic-antagonistic ratios, especially for the
high-speed limb movements typical of sports. Table 6.3 provides some information on the subject, but for low, isokinetic speeds.
This information should only be used as a guideline in trying to maintain these ratios, at least for anatomical adaptation
and transition.
Throughout the
AA phase, the goal is to involve most, if not all, muscle groups in a multilateral-type program. Such a program should include
a high number of exercises (9 to 12) performed comfortably without "pushing" the athletes. Remember, vigorous strength
training always develops the strength of the muscles faster than the strength of the muscle attachments (tendons) and joints
(ligaments). Consequently, such programs can often result in injuries to these tissues.
When large
muscle groups are weak, the small muscles have to take over the strain of the work. As a result, the small muscle groups may
injure more quickly. Other injuries occur because under-trained muscles lack the force to control landings,' absorb shock,
and balance the body quickly to be ready to perform another action (not because of a lack of landing skills).
The duration of the AA phase depends on the length of the preparatory phase, the athletes' background in strength training,
and the importance of strength in the given sport. A long preparatory phase allows more time. Athletes who have a weak strength
training background logically require a much longer AA. This allows progressive adaptation to training loads and, at the same
time, improves the ability of muscle tissue and muscle attachments to withstand the heavier loads of the following phases.
Finally, compared to sports where strength training is less important (such as marathon running), a well-planned and longer
AA will influence the final performance and hopefully produce injury-free athletes. For young, inexperienced athletes, 8 to
10 weeks of AA are necessary. Mature athletes with 4 to 6 years of strength training require no more than 3 to 5 weeks of
AA. For these athletes, an AA phase any longer than this will likely have no significant training effect.
Phase
Two: Maximum Strength Phase
The main objective of this phase is to develop the highest level
of force possible. Most sports require either power (long jump), muscular endurance (800 to 1500-meter swimming), or both
(rowing, canoeing, wrestling, and team sports). Each of these types of strength is affected by the level of MxS. Without a
high level of MxS, P cannot reach high levels. Since P is the product of speed and MxS, it is logical to develop MxS first,
then convert it to P. During this phase, the objective is to develop MxS to the highest level of the athletes' capacity.
The duration of this phase, from 1 to 3 months, is a function of the sport or event and the athletes'
needs. A shot-putter or football player may need a lengthy phase of 3 months, whereas an ice hockey player may need only 12
months to develop this type of strength. Since the load is normally increased in three steps, the duration of the maximum
strength phase must be a multiple of 3. Based on these examples, a shot-putter or lineman may need 9, 12, or 15 weeks of MxS,
but a hockey or soccer player may only need 6 to 9 weeks. The duration of this phase also depends on whether athletes follow
a mono or a bi-cycle annual plan. For obvious reasons, young athletes may have a shorter maximum strength phase, with loads
below maximum.
Phase Three: Conversion Phase
The
main purpose of this phase is to convert or transform gains in MxS into competitive, sport-specific combinations of strength.
Depending on the characteristics of the sport or event, MxS must be converted to a type of either P or M-E, or both. By applying
an adequate training method for the type of strength sought and using training methods specific to the selected sport (for
example, speed training), MxS is gradually converted. Throughout this phase, depending on the needs of the sport and the athletes,
a certain level of MxS must be maintained, or toward the end of the competitive phase, P may slightly decline (detraining).
This is certainly the case for professional football and baseball players, because each of these sports has such a long season.
For sports where P or M-E is the dominant strength, the appropriate method must be dominant in training.
When both P and M-E are required, the training time and method(s) should adequately reflect the optimal ratio between these
two abilities. For instance, for a wrestler, the ratio should be almost equal; for a canoeist's 500-meter program, P should
dominate; and for a rower, M-E should prevail. For team sports, the martial arts, wrestling, boxing, and most other power-dominant
sports, plan exercises that lead to the development of agility and quick reaction and movement times before or during the
conversion phase. Only this type of approach will prepare the athletes for the sport-specific requirements of competitions.
The duration of the conversion phase depends on which ability must be developed. For conversion to P,
4 to 5 weeks of specific power training is sufficient. On the other hand, conversion to M-E requires as many as 6 to 8 weeks
because the physiological and anatomical adaptation to such demanding work takes much longer.
Phase
Four: Maintenance Phase
The tradition in many sports is to eliminate strength training when
the competitive season starts. However, if strength training is not maintained during the competitive phase, athletes will
be exposed to a detraining effect with the following repercussions:
• Muscle fibers decrease
to their pretraining size (Staron et aI., 1981; Thorstensson, 1977).
• Some detraining effects
can be observed after just 5 to 6 days. Detraining becomes more evident after 2 weeks because skills requiring strength
are not performed as proficiently (Bompa, 1993a).
• Loss of power due to decreases in motor
recruitment becomes more visible. The body fails to recruit the same number of motor units as it once could, so there is a
net decrease in the amount of force that can be generated (Edgerton, 1976; Hainaut & Duchatteau, 1989; Houmard, 1991).
• Speed decreases followed by power, since muscle tension depends on the force and speed of stimuli
and firing rate.
As the term suggests, the main objective of strength training for this phase
is to maintain the standards achieved during the previous phases. Once again, the program followed during this phase is a
function of the specific requirements of the sport. The ratios among MxS, P, and M-E have to reflect such requirements. For
instance, a shot-putter may plan two sessions for MxS and two for P, whereas a jumper may consider one and three, respectively.
Similarly, a 100-meter swimmer may plan one session for MxS, two for P, and one for M-E, whereas a 1,500-meter swimmer may
dedicate the entire strength program to perfecting M-E. For team sports, ratios should be calculated according to the role
of strength in the particular sport, as well as being position specific. For instance, a pitcher should perform MxS, P, and
power-endurance equally, and compensation work should be considered to avoid injuries of the rotator cuff. Distinctions should
be made between linemen and wide receivers in football and sweepers, midfielders, and forwards in soccer. Linemen should spend
equal time on MxS and P, and wide receivers only need to perform P; soccer players have to maintain both power and power-endurance.
The number of sessions dedicated to maintenance of the required strength must be between two and four,
depending on the athletes' level of performance and the role played by strength in the skill and performance. Considering
the objectives of the competitive phase, the time allocated to the maintenance of strength is secondary. Therefore, the coach
has to develop a very efficient and specific program. Two to a maximum of four exercises involving the prime movers may suffice
to maintain previously reached strength levels. At the same time, the duration of each strength training session must be short,
30 to 60 minutes. The strength training program should end at least 5 to 7 days before the main competition of the year. The
purpose of this cessation phase (C) is to conserve energy for the competition.
Phase Five: Transition Phase
Traditionally, the last phase of the annual
plan has been inappropriately called the "off-season," but in reality it represents a transition from one annual
plan to another. The main goal of this phase is to remove the fatigue acquired during the training year and replenish the
exhausted energy stores by decreasing volume and especially intensity. Furthermore, during the months of training and competition,
most athletes are exposed to numerous psychological and social stressors that drain their mental energies. During the transition
phase, athletes have time to relax psychologically by being involved in various physical and social activities that are enjoyable.
For serious athletes, the duration of this phase should be no longer than 4 to 6 weeks, or many fitness
benefits will diminish. Athletes work hard to make gains in skill, general fitness, and strength. If a longer off-season is
considered, athletes will experience detraining effects resulting in the loss of most training gains and deteriorating most
of the strength gains. Therefore, athletes and coaches should remember that strength "is hard to gain and easy to lose."
If athletes do not perform any strength training at all during the transition phase, muscles may decrease
in size, resulting in considerable power loss (Wilmore & Costill, 1988). Since power and speed are interdependent, loss
of speed will also occur. Some authors claim that the disuse of muscles also reduces the frequency of neuromuscular stimulation
and the pattern of muscle fiber recruitment; thus, strength loss may be the result of not activating some muscle fibers.
Although physical activity is reduced by 60 to 70 percent during the transition phase, athletes should
still find the time to work on antagonistic, stabilizer, and other muscles that may not necessarily be involved in the performance
of a skill. Similarly, compensation exercises should be planned for sports where an imbalance may develop between parts or
sides of. the body, such as in pitching, throwing events, archery, soccer (work upper body), and cycling.
Detraining
Improvement
or maintenance of a desired level of strength is possible only if an adequate load or training intensity is constantly administered.
When strength training is decreased or ceased, as often happens during competitive or long transition phases, there is a disturbance
in the biological state of the muscle cells and bodily organs. As a result, there is a marked decrease in athletes' physiological
well-being and work output (Fry et al., 1991; Kuipers & Keizer, 1988).
Decreased or diminished
training can leave athletes vulnerable to the "detraining syndrome" (Israel, 1972) or "exercise-dependency
syndrome" (Kuipers & Keizer, 1988). The severity of strength loss depends on the time elapsed between training sessions.
Many organic and cellular adaptation benefits may be degraded, including the increments of the protein content of myosin.
When training proceeds as planned, the body uses protein to build and repair damaged tissues. When the
body is in a state of disuse, it begins to catabolize or break down protein because it is no longer needed for tissue repair
(Appell, 1990; Edgerton, 1976). As this process of protein degradation continues, some of the gains made during training are
reversed. Testosterone levels, which are important for strength gains, have also been shown to decrease as a result of detraining,
which may diminish the amount of protein synthesis (Houmard, 1991).
A rise in psychological disturbances
such as headaches, insomnia, a feeling of exhaustion, increased tension, increased mood disturbances, lack of appetite, and
psychological depression are among the usual symptoms associated with total abstinence from training. Individual athletes
may develop anyone or a combination of these symptoms. In any case, these symptoms all have to do with lowered levels of testosterone
and beta-endorphin, a neuroendocrine compound that is the main forerunner of euphoric post-exercise feelings (Houmard, 1991).
These symptoms are not pathological and can be reversed if training resumes shortly. If training is discontinued
for a prolonged period, however, athletes may display these symptoms for some time. This indicates the inability of the human
body and its systems to adapt to the state of inactivity. The length of time needed for these symptoms to incubate varies
from athlete to athlete, but they generally appear after 2 to 3 weeks of inactivity and vary in severity.
The decrease in the muscle fiber cross-sectional area is quite apparent after several weeks of inactivity. These changes are
the result of protein breakdown, as well as a reduction in the recruitment pattern of the working muscle. The increased levels
of some chemicals (Na+ and CI-) in the muscle playa role in the breakdown of muscle fiber (Appell, 1990).
The general trend toward muscle fiber degeneration is partly due to degeneration of the motor units, in which ST fibers are
usually the first to lose their ability to produce force. IT fibers are generally least affected by inactivity. This is not
to say that atrophy does not occur in these fibers-it just takes a little longer than in ST fibers. For inactive athletes,
the rate of strength loss per day can be roughly 3 to 4 percent in the first week (Appell, 1990). For some athletes, especially
in power-speed-dominant sports, this can be a substantial loss.
Speed tends to be the first ability
affected by detraining, since the breakdown of protein and the degeneration of motor units decreases the power capabilities
of muscle contraction. Speed loss may also be due to the nervous system's sensitivity to detraining. Since the motor unit
itself is the first thing to deteriorate, the reduction in nerve impulses in the muscle fiber make it contract and relax at
very rapid rates. The strength and frequency of these impulses can also be affected by decreases in the total number of motor
units recruited during a series of repeated contractions (Edgerton, 1976; Hainaut & Duchatteau, 1989; Houmard, 1991).
As a result of diminished motor recruitment patterns, the loss in power becomes more pronounced. The body fails to recruit
the number of motor units it once could, resulting in a net decrease in the amount of force generated.
FROM: PERIODIZATION-Training for Sports By
Tudor O. Bompa, PhD
