THROWING EVENTS
Dennis E. Kline
Assistant Track & Field
Coach, University of Wisconsin at La Crosse
The throwing events---shot put, discus throw, hammer throw, and javelin---while different and
unique in technique and implement thrown, all start from a solid base of rhythm, strength, and perhaps most important, skill
and technique.
The rhythm of the throw is both seen and heard by the coach. In all the throws, you
see the acceleration of the athlete and the implement, and you hear acceleration of the feet. The accelerating rhythm of the
feet during the throw highly correlates to the acceleration of the implement, yielding a high velocity at the release-a long
throw.
Both strength and power are very necessary for optimum throwing performance, but having too
much strength will impair a thrower's natural movement patterns. For example, if a shot putter spends too much time increasing
upper body strength and power, the upper body will become the major means of power generation in propelling the shot during
the throw. Such an athlete will then have a very difficult time acquiring the appropriate throwing skill of leading with the
hip girdle and not the shoulder girdle.
Another drawback of becoming too strong is that it often
compromises the recovery time needed between strength training sessions. If an athlete is spending too much energy trying
to become stronger, that athlete will have significant muscle soreness that will decrease the technical development at subsequent
practices. The longer an athlete puts off learning a high level of technique as a result of spending too much time acquiring
strength, the more difficult the obstacles to learning the optimal technique become. With this in mind, the best advice for
strengthening throwers is to take a stair-step approach. This means that the farther athletes throw, the stronger they need
to become-strength should be built gradually, without sacrificing appropriate technique work.
Throughout
this chapter, I use the following location terminology in reference to the ring, the implement, and the athlete's body position.
This terminology applies to all throws, and throughout this chapter, I provide all examples in reference to a right-handed
thrower.
Some coaches refer to positions around the ring or runway as times on a clock (e.g., 12
o'clock), but I prefer to use the degrees of a circle (e.g., 360 degrees), starting with the back of the ring as zero degrees.
The direction of the throw, therefore, is 180 degrees. Other positions of the ring that are critical are 90 degrees and 270
degrees (figure 13.1). These positions are used as reference points for the position of the implement and the athlete. Other
degrees within the ring are integral to event-specific technique, but for general referencing, I will not discuss these yet.
The interrelated position of the athlete, the implement, and the ring provide a means of describing a technique to an athlete
from the coach's viewpoint that leads to optimal results. As seen in figure 13.1, the implement in relation to the athlete
is at approximately 225 degrees as is the implement in relation to the ring, giving a complete snapshot of proper positioning
throughout the throw to the athlete.
The shot put, discus throw, and hammer throw all start at the
back of the ring facing 15 degrees to -15 degrees (or 345 degrees). A coach or athlete may choose a starting position that
varies slightly from this per individual preference, but doing so may not necessarily have any correlation to performance,
specifically torque development. However, using a starting position at -15 degrees in the ring allows a longer path for acceleration
to occur. For the javelin throw, the optimal starting position is with the tip of the javelin pointing to 180 degrees while
the thrower's shoulder girdle faces 270 degrees. But just as the other throwing events reflect individuality, so does the
javelin. An individual thrower may find more success with a banana-shaped approach (rather than a straight approach) in which
the tip points to 160 degrees and the shoulder girdle faces 240 degrees.
Now that I have covered
some similarities of throws, let's discuss some of the specific techniques of each.
DISCUS
The discus is similar to the rotational shot, but the rhythm is quicker, the levers are longer, and the event has a slightly
lower angle of attack.
The discus is held by the hand with the fingers spread comfortably (figures
13.2a and b). The feet split the D-degree position of the circle with the majority of the weight on the left ball of the foot
(for a right handed thrower). This position is created by dorsiflexing the ankle until the soleus is taut, bringing the heel
off the ground, rather than plantar flexing the ankle. The arms are held out wide, but natural. The pattern the feet make
through the ring make a backward seven (figure 13.3).
To begin, the thrower rotates clockwise on both feet, but the pivot point is on the ball of the left foot (figure 13.4a).
More torque is not necessarily important at this point in the throw. The most important thing is that the thrower is on balance
and has started the rhythm of the throw. The left palm of the hand is held upward, and the thrower looks through the left
hand. Both feet stay on the ground a long time. The body position is vertical and the left arm is still parallel to the ground
(figure 13.4b).
At this point, the (right-handed) thrower directs the throw from the left side of the body. The left arm and left leg rotate
synchronously (figure 13.4c). The next series of events starts by driving the right knee up and toward the left sector line
along with right ankle dorsiflexing, toe up, and knee up. The left shoulder and arm position do not change, however the right
arm is pointed upward toward 220 degrees or the left sector line and the left arm points downward (figure 13.4d). The upper
body travels minimally across the ring as the lower body travels aggressively across the ring, creating a body angle of around
75 degrees.
The left leg action is simpler than most coaches make it out to be. The athlete does not extend the left hip out of the back
of the ring for two reasons. First, the athlete's sprint will carry the center of gravity and upper body too far across the
ring. Second, the athlete's left leg now has a greater distance to cover to land at the front of the ring, which causes a
slower end rhythm rather than a slow-to-fast rhythm. Instead the left leg is adducted with the heel as the leading edge while
the right foot is over the center of the ring and extended into the posting position. During the left leg motion, the right
foot and leg rotate counterclockwise over the center of the ring. From the 90-degree view, the left leg should block the view
of the right leg when the right foot is grounded, and the left elbow should be directly above the left knee. During this lower
body action, the shoulder girdle with arms extended stays as torqued as comfortably possible with the right arm pointing at
about 270 degrees (figure 13.4e). Throughout the throw, the timing of each foot contact with the ring is quick and rhythmic.
I compare the timing of each foot contact to the movement of the eyes by someone reading from right to left. When the left
foot is posted, the left elbow continues to be directly above the left knee (figure 13.4f). The right hip rotates inward and
upward, and the left elbow is driven toward the center of the ring (figure 13.4g). The hips precede the shoulder girdle and
right arm. The final effort and the flight of the discus are a result of correct sequential movements (figure 13.4h).
It often helps beginning throwers to compare the upper body's rotation to that of the lower body throughout the throw. As
the right handed thrower gains rotational speed in the ring, the left arm and leg rotate together as the left hand and knee
point down the left sector line of the ring at 40 degrees (figure 13.5a). The left hand continues rotating with the left leg
until the left foot is posted (figure 13.5b). Once the left foot is posted, the left elbow is driven toward the center of
the ring as the thrower releases the discus (figure 13.5c).
Consistently working on correct throwing
technique with every practice throw is the best way to improve discus performance. Coaches should help athletes combine such
technique work with the right mix of strength training, plyometric exercises, and sprinting (to build speed and power) throughout
the training season.
HAMMER
The hammer
throw is different than the other throws in that the implement and thrower develop a relationship-the hammer-thrower system-to
enable great distances to be thrown. Modern technique of the hammer is still under scrutiny. My version of how to throw the
hammer has been developed from years of contact with former American record holder Jud Logan and with Al Shoterman, from personal
experience, and from attending various clinics of Stewart Togher, the U.S. national coach, and Yuriy Sedych, the current world-record
holder.
The starting position for the hammer throw begins with the athlete's gripping the hammer
handle with the left hand first and the right hand over the top of the left hand's fingers (figure 13.6). Unlike the discus
or rotational shot, the left foot is placed at 0 degrees, rather than the feet splitting 0 degrees. This position allows for
maximum use of the ring diameter as the left foot never leaves the ground. The thrower's shoulder girdle turns about 15 degrees
to the right. The feet are placed between 18 and 32 inches apart.
The preliminary rotations are a means to obtain optimum ball speed with a positive postural position into the first turn.
The motion includes movement from the arms, trunk, and legs. The movement of the hammer is in a fixed elliptical shape. As
the hands, with straight arms, go from the right to the left so does the shifting of the weight. The path of the hammer is
leftward and upward. The elbows bend as the hammer approaches 75 degrees. The thumbs then come across the forehead to just
outside the right shoulder. At this point, the hammer is picked up visually and tracked (figure 13.7a). This is continued
for a total of two to three preliminary rotations. Remember that the hammer must be in a path of continuous acceleration.
Figure
13.7, a-c The hammer continuously accelerates throughout the throw.
The last preliminary rotation
is extended to 90 degrees where both feet are on the ground. This becomes the start of the first turn (figure 13.7b). From
this point on, the thrower has the hammer in vision the entire time. The left ankle is dorsiflexed, and the heel is in contact
with the concrete. The right foot is in a parallel position to the left foot, and the center of pressure is on the ball of
the right foot. The position of the hammer at 90 degrees is at shoulder height, with the arms parallel to the ground and the
knees bent approximately 15 degrees. The hammer, hands, head, left knee, and left foot create a single plane (figure 13.7
c). This is the concluding position of the double support phase and the beginning of the single support phase. The hammer
accelerates through 90 degrees in an upward plane (figure 13.7d).
The thrower has two objectives
during the single-support phase:
1. Keep deceleration to a minimum.
2. Maintain radius.
Success is determined by the timing of the thrower's body (and the hammer) as
it relates to the acceleration path of the hammer.
During the single-support phase the speed of the pelvic girdle must exceed the speed of the shoulder
girdle and the hammer. In doing so, the right foot steps forward toward the throwing direction. The left foot is on the ground
with pressure on the lateral edge until it reaches the ball of the foot. This curvilinear action continues until the catch
position. The right foot never steps over the left. This is where the double-support position begins and the hammer, hands,
right knee, and right foot make a single plane (figure 13.7e).
Figure
13.7, d and e During the single support phase, the pelvic girdle moves faster than the shoulders.
From the 90-degree view you should notice the right foot slightly behind the left; this is called under- turning; this is
ideal. The feet can be even, too, buttheworst-case scenario is when the right foot is in front of left, this is called overturning
(figure 13.8). Incidentally, the turns are counted by the contacts made by the right foot. The high point of the hammer is
at 180 degrees. The total number of turns can be three or four. When doing a fourth turn, the initial turn is done on the
toe (a toe turn). In each turn, the angle of delivery increases slightly as the amount of space that each turn requires decreases.
The final effort is no different than any other turn, except for full extension of the knees at 90 degrees.
Figure
13.8 Before the release, the dominant foot should be even with or behind the nondominant foot rather than in front
as shown here.
What is the advantage of doing four turns rather three you may ask? The answer is that doing a
correct toe turn to initialize the hammer thrower system at a slower rate can more easily be accomplished. The opposite argument
is that when a thrower does three turns, the entry must be aggressive and also be technically and rhythmically correct. Most
coaches think that the fourth turn is about creating more speed. In my opinion, it does not do so.
SHOT PUT
Although there are two techniques for throwing the shot put----the glide and rotation----neither technique is necessarily
better for certain ages or experience levels. Rather, shot throwers often choose a style that suits their body type and strength
levels (the choice also depends on the coaching they received when they were first learning). Generally, stronger athletes
tend to do well with the glide technique, and more powerful athletes tend to do well with the rotation.
Glide
For the right-handed thrower, the shot is properly held in the right hand at the base of the fingers with the fingers
comfortably spread and the thumb pointing to the ground the entire throw. The shot is against the neck in a comfortable position
(figure 13.9). The humerus is perpendicular to the spine the entire time. The foot placement starts in the middle of the ring.
The athlete becomes stationary, then approaches 0 degrees with the right foot. The right foot slides up against the ring for
a dynamic start rather than a static one. A dynamic start promotes a positive attitude as well as less loss of balance.
The put now begins. It is important that the motion be dynamic and the athlete always be moving. The torso goes into flexion,
and the left hip goes into extension, bringing the foot off the ground (figure 13.10a). The spine and femur are linear at
this point. The shoulder girdle is closed, perpendicular to 0 degrees. The left arm is straight and hangs with gravity. As
a visual cue, the putter may watch the left thumb. The left hip and knee are brought into flexion as the right knee is slightly
flexed; be sure the right heel stays on the ground.
At this point, the left leg extends forcefully toward 210 degrees,
opening the hips, perpendicular to 45 degrees. The right leg also extends, but not as forcefully, with the heel leaving the
ground last (figure 13.10b).
As the heel leaves the ground, the hips approach the center of the ring. The right hip and knee flex, and the ankle dorsiflexes
underneath the center of gravity (figure 13.10c). This position is called toe up, knee up. The thrower "preturns"
the right foot as much as comfortably possible, hopefully less than 45 degrees. The goal is for the thrower to land the right
foot and then the left in a very close rhythm (figure 13.10d). The left foot should point to the throwing sector as it is
grounded and it is a "hard" position. This means the left leg and foot extend into the ground with some authority.
As this happens with the lower body, the shoulder girdle stays perpendicular to 0 degrees. But the left shoulder goes under
horizontal extension, and the elbow is flexed to 90 degrees until the humerus is pointing to 90 degrees and parallel to the
ground. A body angle of around 75 degrees is created (figure 13.10e).
The right hip rotates towards the direction of the throw, and the left elbow is driven back toward the center of the ring,
causing the body to come over the left leg in a catapult fashion. The hips precede the shoulder girdle and right arm (figure
13.11). The final effort is a result of correct sequential movements. When done correctly, the shot looks as though it is
flicked off the hand, however this itself is not a coaching point, it is an accumulation of correct sequential movements.
Rotation
The rotation shot is similar to the discus throw, except the shot itself pauses in the middle due to the shorter levers, and
its rhythm is different because of that. Along with that, the angle of attack of the shot is a little more vertical. However
the most important factor is the speed of the shot; angle of release is a far second!
The shot is held at the top of
the palm of the hand with the fingers spread comfortably. The thumb points downward-in fact, the thumb points downward, in
relation to the athlete, during the entire throw. Slight pressure is applied to the shot in an inward motion against the neck
(figure 13.12).
As in the glide method, the feet split 0 degrees, with the majority of the weight on the left ball of the foot. The thrower
lets the ankle dorsiflex until the soleus is taut, bringing the heel off the ground (figure 13.13a). This raising of the heel
is unstable. The arms are held out wide, but natural. The pattern of the feet through the ring resembles a backward seven.
To begin the throw, the thrower rotates clockwise on both feet, but the pivot point is on the ball of the left foot.
More "torque" is not necessarily important at this point in the throw. The thrower must be on balance and start
the rhythm of the throw. The left palm of the hand is held upward, and the thrower looks through the left hand (figure 13.13b).
Both feet stay on the ground a long time. The body position is vertical, and the left arm is still parallel to the ground
(figure 13.13c).
At this point, the throw is directed from the left side of the body (for right-handers). The left arm and left leg move synchronously
in rotation until the left knee and hand point down the left sector line in a 40-degree sector (figure 13.13d). The next series
of events starts with the athlete driving the right knee up and toward the left sector line along with right ankle dorsiflexion;
toe up, knee up. The left shoulder and arm position do not change, however the right elbow is pointed upward toward 220 degrees,
or the left sector line, and the left arm points downward (figure 13.13e). The upper body travels minimally across the ring
as the lower body travels aggressively across the ring, creating a body angle of around 75 degrees.
The left leg action has been misunderstood and is simpler than most coaches make it out to be. The athlete does not extend
the left hip out of the back of the ring for two reasons. First, the athlete's sprint carries the center of gravity and upper
body too far across the ring. Second, the athlete's left leg now has a greater distance to cover to land at the front of the
ring, creating a slower end rhythm rather than a slow-to-fast rhythm. Instead the left leg is adducted with the heel as the
leading edge while the right foot is over the center of the ring and extended into the posting position. During the left leg
motion, the right foot and leg rotate counterclockwise over the center of the ring (see figure 13.13f).
From the 90-degree view, the left leg should block the view of the right leg when the right foot is grounded, and the left
elbow should be directly above the left knee. During this lower body action, the shoulder girdle (with arms extended) stays
as torqued as comfortably possible, with the right arm pointing at about 270 degrees (figure 13.13g). The rhythm of the feet
at the front of the ring should be as easy for the thrower as reading from right to left (this refers to the amount of time
between each contact made by foot to the ring). When the left foot is posted, the left elbow continues to be directly above
the left knee (figure 13.13h). The right hip rotates inward and upward, and the left elbow is driven toward the center of
the ring (figure 13.14). The hips precede the shoulder girdle and right arm. The final effort is a result of correct sequential
movements.
JAVELIN
Of all the throws, the javelin is the one most dependent on an athlete's natural ability to throw the implement. In most coaches'
terminology, it is the event that is most "technically critical." Perhaps the easiest way to find a javelin thrower
is to line up your entire team on the infield and have all the athletes throw the javelin. Then keep the top two or three
prospects, based on distance thrown and ease of motion exhibited. Using this method of selecting throwers tends to produce
more success than spending time trying to turn athletes with little natural talent for the event into javelin throwers. The
javelin doesn't have to go a great distance, but the throw should riot hurt or (from the coach's viewpoint) look like it hurts.
This approach may seem unfair, but it may the easiest way to find out which athletes have the appropriate anatomical and biomechanical
qualities of the shoulder that can lead to good throws.
The javelin can be effectively gripped in
a number of ways. None of the three grips shown in figure 13.15, a through c is better than another. Athletes should choose
the grip that is most comfortable, after experimenting with each to determine which feels best.
The javelin is held with the arm drawn back in a straight and relaxed position. The longer the lever, the better. The body
faces 90 degrees to the right of the direction in which the javelin is being thrown. The point of the javelin is next to the
thrower's face. The angle of the javelin is 0 degrees; in other words, the javelin is perpendicular to the body, with the
throw
point, with the elbow bent and as high as the hand (figure 13.16a).
The advance, which
can be the most frustrating part of the throw, is the number of steps before the three-step approach or the seven-step approach.
The key to success is to
have constant acceleration throughout. In other words, the javelin must get faster throughout
the entire throw. If you stick by this rule, choosing the number of steps or distance that is best for you becomes a simple
task. During this phase, the upper body should have minimum movement (figure 13.16b)
The athlete
should have a mark to begin the three- or seven-step approach. At this point the hips are perpendicular to the throw, and
a definite rhythm is established (figure 13.16c). For the right-handed thrower, the first step is with the left leg, as is
the last step as the athlete enters the crossover. The crossover is a transition phase from the approach to the power position.
It is initiated by the last step in the approach with the left leg (figure 13.16d). At this time, a series of events are executed.
• The body performs a pendulum movement in which the upper body moves minimally and the lower body moves greatly.
• The center of gravity does not rise a great amount; however, the goal of the lower limbs is to
cover the greatest amount area as possible in a controlled manner, right leg and then left (figure 13.16e). To enable the
left leg to carry as much ground as possible, the right hip and knee are "soft." This means that extension and flexion
occur in the right leg passively until the left leg is planted.
Upon the landing, the thrower lands with a body angle
of approximately 75 degrees. In this position, the left leg is straight, with the foot landing on the heel and rolling to
a flat position and pointing to the middle of the sector (figure 13.16f). The right leg is bent. The right ankle is dorsiflexed
to allow the foot to land flat and point at about -45 degrees from the middle of the sector.
The
left elbow is drawn in and down. The hips rotate by the driving force of the right leg. The javelin is thrown through the
point, and the body comes up and over the left side (figure 13.16g). The followthrough is indicated by the right hand on the
right thigh (figure 13.16h).
THROWING PRACTICE METHODOLOGY
Coaches can use a variety of instructional techniques to enhance
the effectiveness of a practice session. These include guidance techniques, partial-task strategies, attentional cueing, and
whole practice.
Guidance Techniques
Guidance techniques may range from the coach's providing intermittent performance
cues during throwing, to manual guidance, to the athlete's using mechanical performance aids (e.g., a harness).
Physical guidance of the athlete by the coach during the throw is a common technique used to guide early skill development
and provide psychological support to a young learner. Despite its many positive effects, physical guidance (or manual guidance),
if overused, can have negative consequences for the athlete. These can include the athlete's becoming increasingly dependent
on the coach to throw and the athlete's failure to use his or her own intrinsic sources of sensory feedback.
It takes most athletes two or more years of throwing the hammer before they are able to get a natural, adequate release height.
Beginning hammer throwers tend to throw the ball at a lower than optimal release angle. Therefore, I find that the best use
of this tool is during the first and second years of training to help the young athlete understand his or her body positioning
as it relates to the implement and the surroundings, such as the ring and the throwing cage. I work with these beginning athletes
by physically running around them while holding the hammer in my hands at the proper height so that they can learn to feel
the appropriate position of the hammer in the air. As each athlete matures I rely less and less on this method and use 'it
only when an athlete is not achieving a needed position during the throw. I've had wonderful results with using this method
for hammer throwers.
Partial-Task Strategies
There are two types of part-practice methods----segmentation and simplification.
Segmentation involves the athlete's partitioning the event to work on specific parts. The
focus is for the thrower to master small portions of the event and then put them together. When the small parts are then executed
in proper sequence, the athletes have a high level of skill acquisition and thus improve their performance. Often the contraindications
to a high level of performance in the throws include a lack of experience with a competitive skill as well as a total disregard
for natural movement patterns.
Simplification is best used when the athlete
has a poor assimilation of a skill involved in a complex portion of an event-for example, if the arm needs to perform a movement
simultaneously with the leg, but the movements of each are poor. The simplification technique would dictate that the athlete
acquire the one limb skill first, then once it is mastered, acquire the other limb skill. Using this technique can be very
helpful in initially understanding a movement and moving toward the mastering of the skill. However, it is best if athletes
use this strategy in the very short term, just a few minutes for a few sessions. Once the athlete masters each component,
there is no need to practice them individually; they just need to be integrated in sequence.
Attentional Cueing and Whole Practice
This type of practice method represents a compromise between part-and whole-practice methods. The learner's attention is directed
to one component of the skill while the skill is practiced in its entirety. This technique conserves the spatial and temporal
characteristics of the skill. In other words, the natural rhythm of the movement and location in the ring will be true to
those of a competitive throw, but the athlete will simply be concentrating one aspect.
Learning From a World-Record Holder
At the end of a clinic I attended in the fall of 1994, I had a conversation with Yuri Sedych, the current world-record holder
in the hammer throw. With a group of others, I posed the following question: "I have a 13-yearold athlete who wants to
learn how to throw the hammer. Today is her first day of practice; what would you have her do?" His response was quick
and without hesitation: "I would have her take two windups and three turns." This is a whole-practice competitive
technique in which the athlete starts from the very first day. I was astounded that his methodology did not have the technique
broken down into parts, where all the separate components add up to make the whole. As a former competitive athlete, I concluded
that this strategy made good sense. It has since produced success for me as both an athlete and as a coach. I now suggest
this methodology of attentional cueing and whole practice as the most effective way to teach the throws.
DESIGNING A YEARLY PROGRAM
Your athletes look to you, the coach, for the answers to all their training questions. Unfortunately, the questions
they ask never seem to be the ones that you can easily answer. If you cannot answer a training question quickly and precisely,
athletes may start to lose faith in your abilities to coach.
My favorite question that athletes ask
is "How many throws today?" To answer with a number of throws, however, is useless. There are other questions that
each athlete needs to have answered to determine the number of throws they should complete on any given day. For example:
What time of year is it? How long before the first competition? How hard should the athlete throw? How many throws will be
done as drills? What are the athlete's individual goals, strengths, and weaknesses?
One athlete may
need to focus on speed and therefore need to throw lighter implements; another may need technical correction with a self-attentional
cueing format at a lower level of intensity and distance.
Other common questions that pertain to
all the events include the following:
How many days a week do I practice throwing?
Pick at least three days a week, with a maximum of five days a week. Be as consistent from week to week as possible, as this
will yield the best performances. Three times a week is adequate until the athletes approach the elite level, where five is
needed. The key here though is to be consistent within the year that the athletes are training. The number of throws and the
goals of each practice should differ within the week.
How long should I practice each day?
After a proper warm-up, the practice session should last no longer than an hour. If the athlete is throwing and lifting on
the same day, it is advisable to throw first and then lift-one hour each session-with (optimally) four plus hours between
each session. This guideline becomes more evident to the athletes as their performance levels increase.
The following yearly program is one that can be adapted by any coach. By having a yearly program, a coach earns the confidence
of his or her athletes and thus strengthens the coach-athlete relationship. Moreover, developing a yearly training program
provides a systematic approach to periodization for the throws (periodization is a detailed plan, bro-
ken up into phases
over a long period of time for optimal results).
The best way to start a yearly training design is
to determine the competitions for that year. First, get a calendar and note the date of the championship meet for the year
(Le., the state meet or the national championships) for which your athletes are striving to peak. Then note how much time
your athletes have to train between now and then. For the purposes of my example, I use the USATF National Meet, which is
usually held the third or fourth week in June. Working backward from that meet, we have the following five phases of training
in the yearly plan:
• the competition-season phase (8 to 12 weeks)
• the power phase ( 4 weeks)
• the maximum-strength phase (12 weeks)
• the hypertrophy phase (25 to 28 weeks)
• the preparation phase (4 to 8 weeks)
Once you have determined how each phase fits into your training plan, you next need to determine how much work and time to
dedicate toward training parameters. For example, in figure 13.17, I divide the throwing event's training parameters into
two distinct areas.
1. The first is skill, where time and effort are dedicated
toward the technique mastery of the throw, with the best determinant of technique improvement being distance thrown.
2. The second is athletic, where time and effort is dedicated toward improving the attributes that
an athlete needs to perform well. In the case of the hammer throw, the athletic goal is increased power output through resistance
and assistance exercises.
Through each macrocycle, I alter the focus based on the athletes' intermediate goals. For instance, to effectively practice
a few days in a row with a high volume (heavy weight) of training, the athlete needs to be able to handle the workload such
that technical improvement is not compromised. So the previous macrocycle's goal is solely to improve the work capacity of
the athlete. If it is not done, the athlete will fail halfway through the first day and will not be able to recover for the
second and third days.
At the end of the training year, the percentages of concentration should ideally
average out to be evenly split between skill and athletic abilities. Realistically, a changing climate and physical well-being
are additional factors in the equation, and training focus can be altered to best suit optimum performance. For example, I
believe that skill mastery of the hammer throw in a cold climate is more difficult for a thrower to achieve and that the athlete
may have greater competitive results if some of that time is put toward athletic improvement. So, during the coldest part
of the year here in Wisconsin (during our hypertrophy and maximum strength phases), we decrease the percentage of skill training
and increase in athletic improvement. The result of this is fewer training throws. Consequently, an increase in skill work
will need to be applied to the preparation, power, and competition macrocycles.
Preparation Macrocycle
Before any high
volume training is done, athletes must go through a preparation macrocycle to prepare their bodies for the future demands
of training. The preparation macrocycle varies in length from four to eight weeks, depending on training age. The younger
the athlete, the longer the preparatory cycle. In the example in table 13.1, I picked six weeks because the beginning (the
start of September) coincides with the start of a new month along with the start of a new training year. The intent of training
during this phase is to push the lactate threshold (for future recovery), to increase flexibility, and to prepare the joint
stability of the body for the upcoming volume. The methods of training for these goals include circuit training, 50- to 500-meter
runs, and nonspecific throwing.
Hypertrophy Macrocycle
The hypertrophy phase is the foundation
of the training year in which throwers attain every major physical adaptation and technical mastery per event. To optimize
phosphagen levels at rest in the muscle, athletes must participate in 180 to 200 days of specific training. Optimizing phosphagen
levels at rest early in the year is important for two reasons. The first is that once the optimal levels of phosphagen are
reached, a natural peaking will occur for the rest of the year, so the athletes must ensure that they start early enough to
allow this to happen. The second reason this optimizing needs to happen during this time frame is that it allows athletes
to practice day to day while picking up the technique where they left off the day before.
We can
break the hypertrophy macrocycle into three microcycles, with the middle microcycle being the most demanding and constituting
the highest volume of work per year. For the example in table 13.1, the start date of this phase would be around the second
week in October. The objective of this microcycle is for the throwers to handle as much volume (tonnage) as possible while
still improving or maintaining their training distance. Do not overtrain athletes by asking them to handle too much volume
and thus destroy their motor learning patterns! Performing simple field tests throughout this phase of training, such as body
weight and standing long jump tests, can uncover indicators of overtraining: significant losses or reduced scores in either
of these tests indicate that an athlete is overtrained. If you find that an athlete is overtraining, reduce tonnage immediately
and (if necessary) give the athlete two to three days of full rest before returning to practice.
Maximum-Strength
Macrocycle
The maximum-strength macrocycle generally lasts 12 weeks. Tonnage should be the same here as in
the preceding macrocycle, but the overall volume is slightly less and the intensity greater. The goal of the practices during
this phase is to get the athletes' muscles to recruit the high-threshold motor units not previously recruitable. Three microcycles
fall within this phase, each four weeks in length, with the second one being the most demanding.
Power Macrocycle
Four weeks before the competitive season, the athletes enter into a macrocycle that emphasizes power. In this macrocycle,
volume is reduced, and near-maximum weights are used to increase the rate of force development. Tonnage drops severely, but
throwers will experience personal records with light balls.
Competition Macrocycle
The first week of your team's outdoor competition season may vary, depending upon your geographic location and the availability
of meets. (For this section, I'll use the first week in April as the start of the competition season.) The competition season
is designated as a training macrocycle, or phase in which the sole goal is to improve performance of one specific training
parameter. For example, the goal during this phase for a hammer thrower is to improve the distance of the 16-pound hammer
throws. Prospective improvements in distance from the end of the hypertrophy macrocycle to the competitive macrocycle could
be as much as 7 percent (or more).
Volume of Each Macrocycle
I have adapted the volume of each macrocycle
from the United States Weightlifting Federation (USWF) guidelines. I break down training volume percentages according to the
length and intent of each of the five macrocycles (table 13.1).
The training volume number for the
year is alterable and depends on the length of the athlete's season and competition level. For example, if the athlete is
competing in the national or state meet, a longer training year is needed along with a greater volume of work than that of
an athlete whose last meet is the conference meet.
The volume of work reflects the number of event
throws, plus resistance, plus assistance. Or, in other words the formula is as follows: repetitions + repetitions in the weight
room + (number of plyometrics + sprinting + pud throws) = volume of work. Throws include any throw with any weight implement
using any technique, as long as there is a release. The hammer can vary in weight from 4 to 15 kilograms with various lengths
from 1 to 1.215 meters. The discus can vary in weight from 1.6 to 2.25 kilograms, the javelin from 600 grams to 1 kilogram,
and the shot from 5 to 9 kilograms.
The intensity of most throws should be between 85 to 92 percent
of the thrower's maximum effort, as technique can suffer on throws attempted outside of this range. However, an athlete can
attempt to throw one out of six throws in practice further than 92 percent of the maximum. A thrower with 30 throws planned
for the practice is allowed 5 attempts at greater than 92 percent of his or her maximum. Again, a throw that an athlete intends
to be beyond 92 percent of the maximum that ends up between 85 and 92 percent of the
maximum does not qualify as a throw
within the range.
The volume of weight lifted is assigned as repetitions and not tons. Tonnage reflects
how intensely the repetitions are executed by an athlete. This way, the coach can assign intensity, sets, and reps based on
individual need and availability. The selection of exercises should not be limited to those provided in table 13.2, which
were used for a year of
training in 1996 (and which led to two athletes' qualifying for the Olympic Trials). Alter these
exercises to fit your own facilities, beliefs, and knowledge. These exercises are safe and effective, and they are appropriate
for training athletes 14 years old and older.
Speed-assisting exercises include plyometrics and sprinting. The volume of plyometrics should be counted by the number of
contacts made, and the intensity of the plyometrics is determined by the coach. These exercises must reflect the macro- and
microcycle standards as well as the abilities of the athlete. Sprinting repetitions are counted by the repeats, with the maximum
amount of total distance per week being 300 meters. The work:rest ratio for any speed assisting or sprinting should be 1 :3.
Pud throws include any throw, with any weight, with any technique-as long as there is a release.
Puds are used to create general throwing power. Athletes' throws should be distributed evenly between their left and right
sides to avoid developing any muscle imbalance.
Table 13.3 provides a sample weekly program for week
20 (early in the maximum strength microcycle).
Figure 13.18 provides a graph of a year's volume over five macrocycles. Each week is broken down into its respective components.
FROM: Coaching Track & Field Successfully by Mark Guthrie
