Psychological
Restoration: Assessing Underrecovery And Underperforming In Track And Field Athletes
A leading sport psychology professional discusses certain tools the coach can use to evaluate the recovery and restoration
stages of training, along with methods to spot overtraining symptoms in a systematic way.
By Ralph A. Vernacchia, Ph.D.
Highly successful
coaches and athletes recognize the need to monitor training programs and efforts in order to guard against overtraining. The
"nose to the grindstone" approach to training has been replaced by periodized training programs that are designed
to help athletes achieve peak performances. Included within these programs are periods of rest to help athletes recover from
demanding training and racing efforts.
The ability to recognize and respect the "less is more"
training tenet and go with the high-performance mentality that "rest is best" is a characteristic of mature athletes
who have developed the confidence and ability to "listen to their bodies" and to trust what they hear. Joan Benoit
Samuelson, the I984 Olympic marathon champion, provides us with the following low-tech/high-performance training wisdom that
is so important in achieving peak performances: "Beware of overtraining and reaching your peak too soon before the
race. This can happen when I get too wrapped up in seeing continuous improvement and challenging myself. That's because training
like this can be enticing and addictive. When I feel this happening, I really have to listen to my training partners, who
warn me to cut out of a workout before I go over the edge. Once, I didn't listen and a bad track workout set the stage for
a spoiled marathon. I kept trying to make up ground from this one effort, despite the fact that I had been ill and clearly
had not recovered ... Don't make this common mistake. Marathon training is very tiring. When you don't feel right, back off.
It's all too easy to fall victim to the idea that you must run a certain number of 20-milers. When you're tired, it's better
to run less" (Samuelson & Averbuch, pp. 106, 107).
Unfortunately, developing athletes
fall into the overtraining trap and dissipate the physical, mental and emotional energy that has previously fueled their performance
effectiveness. This is because developing athletes lack the training and performance experience necessary to temper their
training plans and programs. Joan Benoit Samuelson also speaks to this point: " ... I have always believed the best
way to learn your limits is by experience. For myself, I can run hard for a couple of consecutive sessions, but then I need
to take it easy for at least two days-rather than follow the one-day hard/one-day-easy rule. I have learned by experience
how to gauge overtraining ... Watch for the signs that you've overdone it: feeling flat in training, lack of appetite, insomnia,
general apathy or crankiness. Also, when you suspect overtraining, study your running diary and review your lifestyle over
the past few weeks" (Samuelson & Averbuch, 1995, p.65).
While these quotes may seem
somewhat dated, they do express an enduring wisdom that is often overlooked by contemporary coaches and athletes. Current
trends in the field of sport and performance psychology have endeavored to replace the concept of overtraining with the term
"underrecovery" in order to shed new light on the rest, recovery and restoration phases of the training process
(Kellmann, 2002a). It is the purpose of this article to present track and field coaches and athletes, as well as sport scientists,
with the assessment basics of psychological restoration that can be used to monitor and prevent overtraining and underperforming
(Vernacchia, 1997, 2003a).
RESTORATION ASSESSMENT
Stress Seeking and the Need for
Sleep
First and foremost it is important to recognize that athletes are "stress seekers" who enjoy meeting the challenges
that athletic competition presents. It is also important to realize that the "endeavor that excites you the most, exhausts
you the most." The prudent use of one's mental, physical and emotional re sources is essential in conserving the
personal energy necessary to fuel successful athletic performances. The ability to assess one's own stress levels and responses
to stress can be an invaluable "intangible" that can make or break an athlete's effectiveness in high-performance
settings.
The Stress Response Inventory (Figure 1; Hurr & Reardon, 2005)
is useful in creating self-awareness among athletes regarding their physical, emotional and behavioral responses to the stresses
of athletic training and competition. When completing the inventory keep in mind that the greater the frequency, intensity,
and duration of the cues or responses that are checked indicates the greater the role that stress is likely to play in one's
life (Hurr & Reardon). The key here is to regulate an athlete's ability to recover from and to cope with stress effectively
in both his/her athletic endeavors and daily lives.
Hurr and Reardon (2005) suggest that stress interferes with our restorative sleep habits because we may be worried about upcoming
athletic events such as training, travel, competition, etc. They state that as a result of the stress/worry relationship"
... we are unable to let go of stress and refresh our minds and our bodies with a restful night's sleep ... the more that
we try to control the problem or situation, the higher our anxiety is raised, and the less we have control of ourselves"
(Hurr & Reardon, p. 235). Hurr and Reardon also present a variety of mental training techniques and strategies to alleviate
pre and post competitive stress including relaxation training, mental imagery, and self-talk.
Furthermore,
if athletes are going to engage in quality practice sessions, the demands of which are many, then they must also engage in
quality rest. Rest or restoration provides an athlete with the opportunity to reenergize and rejuvenate themselves after demanding
practice and performance efforts (Vernacchia, 2003a, b).
Providing "down" time in any competitive
training schedule can work wonders to restore an athlete's zest and motivation to practice and perform. Sleep is often overlooked
as an integral part of a quality training program but is essential to the well-being and performance effectiveness of athletes.
Changes in sleep patterns due to jet lag, emotional stress, and injury can have a negative impact on athletic performance
(Savis, 1994). This is why periodized training programs provide a postseason recovery phase for athletes, as well as rest
and recovery periods within seasonal training phases to meet the physical and emotional demands of training.
Lack of sleep is often a problem among athletes, particularly at the collegiate level. These athletes put in long training
hours, sometimes working out twice a day. Combine training demands with travel, competition, academic and social demands and
those who are not vigilant about protecting and satisfying their sleep requirements soon find themselves in a state of sleep
deprivation. Being "tired" at practice or prior to a performance can cause an athlete's mind to wan der, causing
him or her to perform poorly and merely" go through the motions."
Taking a 20-minute nap
is one of the best ways to provide athletes with the rest that they need just prior to practice or performance efforts. As
children we did this on a regular basis but as adults we tend to be socialized out of this practice. It would be wise for
athletes to provide structured" down" time for them during the day-a 20-minute nap after lunch for example or prior
to practice would do wonders to restore an athlete's energy and focus for practice sessions or performances.
Observation and Probing
Coaches who
are attuned to their athletes' training and performance responses can be invaluable resources for athletes who desire to attain
and maintain their training
energy and competitive edge. Successful coaches develop an observational and conversational
relation ship with their athletes that results in the design and implementation of flexible and developmentally appropriate
training programs and racing schedules. For example, coaches often ask the question, "How do you feel today?" This
simple question provides a wealth of information regarding the athlete's mental, physical and emotional responses to training
and competitive efforts.
At minimum coaches can learn more about an athlete's preparation, performance effectiveness,
and restoration abilities by asking the following five core questions after each competition (Hoog, 2002,
p. 186):
1. What happened exactly? .. for you ... for the team?
2. What is
the impact of your performance on you? .. on the team?
3. How did your performance make you feel?
4. What did you learn-technically, physically, tactically and mentally?
5. What
are you encouraged to repeat or do differently for the next meet/competition?
Key Questions in Evaluating
Training Recovery and Restoration
The coach-athlete relation ship is the primary mechanism by which coaches and athletes can
assess, monitor and recover from the imposed stress of the athletic environment. In addition to the general conversation question
of "How do you feel today?" athletes can provide important insights into their recovery from training loads by answering
the following questions posed by the Recovery-Cue Inventory on a weekly basis (Kellman, Patrick, Botterell, & Wilson,
2002, pp. 227-228):
1. How much effort was required to complete my workouts last week?
Excessive effort Hardly any effort
0 1 2
3 4 5
6
2. How recovered did I feel before my workouts last week?
Still not recovered
Energized and recharged
0 1
2 3 4
5 6
3. How successful was I at rest and recovery activities?
Not successful
Successful
0 1
2 3 4
5 6
4. How well did I recover physically last week?
Never
Always
0 1 2
3 4 5
6
5. How satisfied and relaxed was I as I fell asleep in
the last week?
Never
Always
0 1
2 3 4
5 6
6. How much fun did I have last week?
Never
Always
0 1
2 3 4
5 6
7. How convinced was I that I could achieve my goals during
performance last week?
Never
Always
0 1
2 3 4
5 6
These questions will allow coaches and athletes to jointly evaluate not only recovery states during and after training phases
but will also provide additional feedback on the athlete's perception regarding the level of exertion needed to complete training
sessions; the effectiveness of restorative activities; the athlete's confidence level as a result of completed training sessions;
and whether or not the athlete is enjoying the "process" and challenge of training (Kellman, Patrick, Botterell,
& Wilson, 2002).
Revisiting
the Assessment of Overtraining
While it is not the purpose of this article to address overtraining and its assessment, there
are several assessment tools (paper and pencil inventories) that sport psychology professionals and coaches have used to monitor
and prevent overtraining. A brief overview of these inventories is presented here with the recommendation that coaches work
with a sport psychology professional to help them under stand, interpret and implement appropriate and effective physical
and mental training strategies.
The Profile of Mood States Inventory (POMS). The
POMS is the most widely used psychometric (paper and pencil) inventory employed to assess overtraining among athletes in a
variety of sports. Properly administered and interpreted the POMS is helpful in determining the influence of mood related
states such as tension, depression, anger, vigor, fatigue, and confusion. Researchers (Morgan, 1980, 1992; Morgan, Brown,
D., Raglin, J., O'Connor, & Ellickson, 1987; Morgan, O'Connor, Erickson, & Bradley, 1992; Morgan, O'Connor, Sparling,
& Pate 1992; Morgan & Pollock, 1977) have developed the "iceberg" profile of effective athletic performers
that can be used to identify those athletes who are energized, relaxed and focused prior to competitive efforts.
The POMS has also been used to identify Maladaptive Fatigue Syndrome (MFS) in athletes (Henschen, 2000). MFS is defined as
physical and/or mental fatigue caused by a combination of stressors from mental, physical and social sources (Henschen). Physical
symptoms of MFS include severe fatigue, chronic illness, temperature swings, lactic acid increases, excessive sweating, gastrointestinal
disturbances, sleep disturbances, increased resting heart rate, elevated resting blood pressure, and performance decline (Henschen).
Psychological and emotional symptoms include changeable moods, lowered tolerance of frustration, feelings of helplessness,
negative self-concept, feelings of worthlessness, increased irritability, apathy, depressed mood and excessive guilt (Henschen).
The Daily Analysis of Life Demands for Athletes Inventory (DALDA). The DALDA (Rushall,
1990) inventory provides coaches and athletes feedback regarding the effects of life and training stress on training and performance
(Christensen, 2001). Life stresses that are evaluated by the DALDA are diet, home life, school/college/work, friends, training
and exercise, climate, sleep, recreation, and health. Sources of training stress evaluated by the DALDA are muscle pain, techniques,
tiredness, need for a rest, supplementary work, boredom, recovery time, irritability, weight, throat, internal, unexplained
aches, technique strength, enough sleep, between sessions recovery, general weakness, interest, arguments, skin rashes, congestion,
training effort, temper, swellings, likeability, and running nose (Rushall).
Assessing Recovery
The most recent inventory and assessment tool in
the field of sport psychology is the Recovery Stress Questionnaire for Athletes (RESTQ-Sport; Kellman
& Kallaus, 2001). Both the short (52 questions) and the long forms of the RESTQSport were developed to measure the
frequency of current stress with the frequency of recovery associated with certain activities. These measures are then used
to create a recovery profile of the athlete as measured by the following inventory scales: general stress; emotional stress;
social stress; conflicts/pressure; fatigue; lack of energy; physical complaints; success; social recovery; physical recovery;
general well-being; sleep quality; disturbed breaks; burnout/ emotional exhaustion; fitness/injury; fitness/being in shape;
burnout/ personal accomplishment; self-efficacy; self-regulation.
Essentially the RESTQ-Sport inventory
can provide an individualized assessment of each athlete's recovery ability and potential from life, training and performance
stress (Kellman, 2002b). This recovery stress state or profile would then be useful in evaluating the appropriateness
and potential effectiveness of restorative activities that might be selected by an athlete to enhance recovery. Kellman states
that, "The theory behind the questionnaire is that an accretion (accumulation) of stress in life, coupled with weak recovery
potential, will cause a variation of the psychophysical state" (p. 43).
Kentta and Hassmen (2002)
also advocate using the Total Quality Recovery Scale (TQRS) to evaluate the athlete's perceptions regarding
their recovery between training sessions. The opposite of Borg's (1985, 1998) Perceived Exertion Scale the
TQRS allows an athlete to select a number that represents his or her current recovery levels ranging from "no recovery
at all" to "maximal recovery".
Training Logs and Post Competitive Evaluations
Training logs or diaries are essential tools for
athletes who wish to monitor the effectiveness of their training. A weekly review of the training log can provide athletes
with valuable insights regarding their ability to respond and recover in a healthy and productive way to the stresses of daily
workouts or competition.
On a daily basis a training diary can not only keep track of specific workout
content but can also reflect the athlete's thoughts and feelings (physical and emotional), and energy levels prior to, during
and after training sessions. It can also be helpful to have a post-competitive evaluation process that athletes can use to
examine their mental, physical and emotional responses before, during and after competing in track and field meets. A sample
of a post-meet evaluation is presented in Figure 2.
Post-competitive evaluations provide a wealth of information regarding the track and field athletes' physical, emotional and
mental states before, during and after competitive efforts. By reviewing these evaluations after a complete season we can
begin to construct an ideal performance profile for each athlete based on the relationship between past effective performances
and de sired physical, emotional and mental pre- and post-performance states. In effect such an ideal performance profile
will help answer the often asked question by coaches prior to performance-"How do you feel?" It will not only assess
the athlete's physical or kinesthetic readiness for competition but it will also monitor his or her emotional readiness. Similarly
it will measure mental, physical and emotional awareness during competition and then will provide athlete feedback regarding
his or her recovery from competitive efforts so the restoration phase of training can be most effective.
SUMMARY
AND RECOMMENDATIONS
A variety of methods were presented in this article to enable the track and field coach and athlete
to assess the recovery and restoration phase of training, particularly as they relate to the effectiveness of competitive
efforts. Seven assessment tools of overtraining, under recovery and underperforming described in this article included: The
Stress Response Inventory; the Profile of Mood States Inventory; the Recovery-Cue Inventory; the Daily Analysis of Life Demands
for Athletes Inventory; the Recovery Stress Questionnaire for Athletes; the Total Quality Recovery Scale; and a Post-Competition
Evaluation Inventory for Track and Field Athletes. These inventories can be used individually or in combination to shed light
on athletes' ability to restore and rejuvenate themselves throughout the training and performance annual and seasonal cycles.
Coaching recommendations for enhancing psychological recovery and restoration among track and field athletes
include:
• Maintain a reasonable level of understanding regarding the influence
of sport science on the training and performance of track and field athletes. A basic level of theoretical and applied knowledge
regarding training theory, sport psychology, sport nutrition, biomechanics and exercise physiology is essential to coaching
effectiveness. USATF Level I, II, and III Coaching Education programs can provide the opportunity for track and field coaches
at all developmental levels to educate themselves regarding the sport science-athletic performance relationship. In addition,
the bibliography that accompanies this article can provide more in-depth information regarding the psychobiophysical aspects
of restoration.
• Engage qualified sport scientists to create a better understanding
of the sport science-athletic performance relationship. In essence create a sport science net work that will ensure that
your track and field program is on the vanguard of the latest training and performance techniques and strategies. For example,
a sport psychology professional can be recruited to help coaches ethically and effectively administer and interpret the inventories
presented in this article.
• Encourage athletes to keep a log or diary in order
to track and monitor the effectiveness of training and competitive efforts.
•
Monitor the stress levels of your athletes and be able to recognize the physical, behavioral and emotional symptoms of stress
that interfere with the recovery and restoration phases of training.
• Track
and evaluate sleep patterns as a measure of an athlete's ability to recover from training sessions and competitive efforts.
Eight hours of sleep each night is a general recommendation to ensure proper rest, recovery, and restoration for track and
field athletes. In addition, a 20 minute nap during the day may also help to rejuvenate athletes for daily training sessions.
• Use both objective (inventories) and subjective means (athlete feedback and
coaching observations) to assess an athlete's recovery and restoration states and abilities.
•
Structure the recovery process to include four phases: (1) nutrition and hydration; (2) sleep and rest; (3) relaxation and
social support/interactions; (4) stretching and active rest (Kentta & Hassmen, 2002).
•
Develop the ability of athletes to use low-tech/high-performance approaches such as "listening to your body, thoughts
and feelings" in order to enhance training and performance.
• Implement
flexible training and competition plans and schedules in order to promote adequate physical, mental, and emotional restoration.
Dr. Ralph Vernacchia is the director of the Center for Performance Excellence at Western Washington University in Bellingham,
WA. He is also co-chair of USATF Sport Psychology and is the author of numerous articles and books on the subject. He is co-editor
of the recently published collection, The Psychology of High-Performance Track & Field, available from Track & Field
News.
FROM: TRACK COACH I79
