Strength and Power Development

    It has long been recognized that an organism cannot develop unless it undergoes a period of overload training. For a muscle, a nerve, or an entire body to progress, it must be overloaded in one or all of the following ways:

   •  Increase the speed of performance

   •  Increase the total time of loading

   •  Increase the total load
   •  Increase the total number of performances

    Different workloads affect the body differently, but a good rule of thumb is that to increase strength or endurance, you must increase the threshold by one third of normal activity. Depending on the goal, different functions and areas of the body respond to varied overload percentages.
 

Physiological Considerations

    Hypertrophy (strength gain) occurs with regular overload activity. Strength gains are demonstrated through several physiological means within the muscle. Protein synthesis can only occur through bodily requirements in situations such as growth, injury, and overload training. All of these are dictated by the hor­monal needs of the body.
    As a coach, you should have some general knowledge about strength training. The challenge for coaches and athletes is to develop a training routine that causes hypertrophy of certain muscle types for special activities, especially those of a speed nature. Developing such a specialized routine is key for the jumping events.
    Intensity of exercise is the prime requisite of fast-twitch muscle development. Lifting moderate to heavy weights is the correct regimen for eliciting strength in fast-twitch muscle fiber.
    The coach who is developing a strength training program must understand the way neurons stimulate the muscle. What happens in the nervous system is as important as what occurs in the muscle because it triggers activity in the individual muscles and muscle groups. We are interested in motor recruitment and how it eventually controls the muscle forces in each of the specific jump skills an athlete wishes to develop.
    According to the "all or none" principle, a muscle nerve unit will fire and contract at maximum effort or it will not fire and contract at all. For a muscular skill to be at its highest level, as many muscle-nerve units as possible must be recruited. This is usually accomplished with loads rather than volume. A jumper seeks intensity during strength development, at times working at 80% to 100%. These submaximum to maximum loads are used during the final strength cycles.
    During structured progressive training, a jumper can make sufficient improvements in strength. It may take months or even years, but this single developmental aspect contributes more to an athlete's success than any other training component. It improves skill technique, increases generation and utilization of speed during the runway, and also makes the athlete far less susceptible to injury.
    In general, strength training has two primary goals: a peak speed of contraction and a peak load of contraction. Mechanically speaking, applied to performance, the two factors combined equal impulse (force x time). The development of impulse is the basis for all successful jumping.
    A systematic approach to strength development must be thought out carefully for each athlete and adjusted somewhat as the athlete progresses through his or her career. However, regardless of the individual or the training level, there are common elements that must be integrated. These elements should follow standard order and training theory.
    Early in the year, a general training regimen should provide stress to the working aerobic capacity of the body. In terms of weights, it would implement weight circuits of any varying nature. These weight circuits should involve activities that utilize the athlete's own body weight, such as interval training in any activity where the emphasis is on maximum repetitions of low intensity (35%-60%) with very short recovery intervals. The basic goal is cardiovascular activity that raises the oxidative capacities of the body.
    Following the aerobic work, the goal should be muscle hypertrophy. Training should in­clude any work that tends to increase muscle mass ,and muscle-nerve recruitment through moderate loads (50%-70% of 8-10 repetitions and gradually increasing the sets from three to six). This could be in the form of lifting weights but could also include work with a medicine ball, running, skipping, or bounding. By utilizing these dynamic activities in addition to lift

ing weights, much more balance and body awareness will be developed in this phase of strength training.
    The next ingredient in the basic strength routine is the development of maximum strength. Maximum strength is best developed in the weight room using heavy free weights. Work in this area is very specific to the athlete's physical attributes, age, and skill level and should be closely monitored by the coach. The goal is to increase maximum dynamic strength. The sets should decrease to two or three, with repetitions limited to five.
    At this point, the jumper is assumed to have reached a near absolute strength peak for precompetition athletes. The strength developed is specific but will blend into later stages of training.
The next component of our training routine is power training. Power is the ability to maximize strength at the fastest possible rate and is probably the most important physical component for the jumper to develop. Our emphasis is on integrating power activities with strength activities. Power is best developed using a combination of ballistic body weight activity (plyometrics, etc.) and either Olympic or power lifts.
    Olympic lifts include the clean and jerk, and the snatch. Olympic lifting is especially suited to developing explosive power and quickness in the athlete. Power lifting, on the other hand, includes the squat, the bench press, and the dead lift. Because of the weight load used, this activity is characterized as slow strength movement. By complementing the Olympic lifts with power lifts and other dynamic activities, the result should be a jumper who is not only strong but can move with explosive quickness. This is the most important ingredient for proper preparation for jump training.
    The final component of our plan is the speed emphasis phase. This phase is the link to incorporating a peak speed and a peak load force during the lifting and training sessions. The speed phase generally combines any of the speed activities (sprinting, bounding, skipping) with Olympic lifting (two to five repetitions at 80%-100% of maximum load) followed by power lifting (four to eight repetitions at or near 60% of maximum).
    The speed emphasis phase should be followed by a recovery period that naturally follows the competitive season. This is generally characterized as an active rest period during which the athlete continues with informal and/or recreational activities. At the completion of the rest phase, the entire sequence begins again the next training year but at a more specific and higher workload.

Plyometrics Training

    In our coaching vocabulary, plyometrics is a coined term for the elasticity component of strength training, which some coaches have come to view as a cure-all in strength training and event preparation. It is not. Plyometrics is simply a means of adding a strength and power development component to individual pro­grams. Elastic strength training can be thought of as completing the chain of events that occurs in the athlete's total strength development package.
    Muscles possess elasticity. During the stretching of a muscle, an automatic reflexive strengthening of the contraction occurs, which is referred to as the myotonic reflex.
    Geoffrey Dyson (1977), in his book Mechanics of Athletics, describes the function of muscles during a loading phase: "The function of a muscle is simply to exert tension. This is best done when loaded sufficiently to lengthen despite trying to shorten. The faster it is allowed to shorten, the less tension it exerts; the faster it is forced to lengthen, the greater the tension." Dyson goes on to imply that too much stretch will cause a buckling effect. This results in an optimum load stimulus and will be counter­productive.
    Plyometric muscle loading is accomplished in three ways:
     1. Dropping down from a height to the ground, which forces a slight flexing of the legs.
     2. Checking momentum with a plant leg in either a horizontal or vertical direction.
     3. Increasing the load or tension by accelerating the free leg and/or the arms while the plant leg is undergoing amortization. This is referred to as transference of force.
    The original concept of depth (or in-depth) training has created much confusion regarding the use of low boxes versus high boxes, down jumping, and how much training is good (or bad). Verhoshansky's (1967) original publications supported the theory that the greater the loading at pre-stretching, the greater the jumping results. As a result, many coaches came to believe that plyometrics was the only way to go in jump training. After all, they reasoned, if something is good, then more must be better. This has led to such foolhardy plyometric practices as athletes jumping off 8- and 12-foot platforms. Not surprisingly, plyometric training has been reported to be the
leading cause of soft tissue injury.
    A coach and athlete should carefully consider strength, training level, age, and recov­ery in planning plyometric activities. The coach should look for specific work that will enhance strength and explosive power while developing the technical skills needed for the jumping events. Only then should plyometric activities be brought into the sequence of strength training. Stretch muscle training can and should be developed during ground-to­ground activities. Positive results have been reported about athletes such as Ulrike Meyfarth, who confines much of her training to 3-inch height platforms combined with ground-to-ground activities.

    Skipping and rope jumping are excellent preparatory activities to incorporating the elasticity components of strength training.

Training Principles

    Plyometrics should be initiated early in the training year, during skill and technique development. All concepts and drills should be fully explained to athletes before they begin any activity. Plyometric jump training must follow a definite progression. Emphasis must be on proper execution of the activity rather than on the number of repetitions. When fatigued, the athlete must rest or stop the activity altogether. Improper performance in drills can lead to improper jump performances. The athlete should be trained to effectively apply force into the ground while running.

    An athlete' s plyometric needs are developed by two major training techniques. Short-distance, quick jumps are good for improving explosive power. Longer distance jumps improve muscle endurance and the development of takeoff timing for arms and legs. The minimum height for boxes used for jump training is 30 inches for short, explosive jumps and 43 inches for strength and power activity.
    It is best to incorporate short-distance jump work the day before speed work. Even the mature athlete needs approximately 48 hours of recovery time before heading into another plyometric workout. Six to 8 days of rest are recommended prior to competition or long­distance jump training. Overload (weighted vests) training should not be used early in the season and not until the athlete completes strength evaluation tests. Overloading should begin during the absolute strength phase.
    Training objectives should include proper foot placement: on the ball of the foot while running and flat on the foot while jumping. In both instances, the calf muscles should be sufficiently loaded so that the athlete can get onto and off the ground in the shortest possible time. Have the athlete attempt to transfer as much momentum as possible from the free limbs into the support leg. (The more force directed into the ground via the support leg, the more force delivered back into the jumper by the ground.) The objective is to combine the forces generated by the support leg with additional forces provided by the swinging arms and free leg into one instantaneous reaction against the ground. The speed at which muscle fibers are forced to lengthen has a direct bear­ing on the resultant force.

Strength Evaluation

    A certain sequence of activities should be followed in plyometric training to prevent injuries and properly design load progressions. Strength evaluation is probably not necessary before beginning light plyometrics early in the season. Low-impact activities such as rope jumping, skipping, and postural bounding drills should not cause extreme fatigue or injury. However, before prescribing high-impact activities, the coach should evaluate the athlete's strength to determine the correct volume and intensity for load progressions. The athlete must be strong enough to work through the plyometric activities and be able to recover before moving into subsequent training sessions.
    Two specific strength indexes should be addressed by the coach before allowing an athlete to participate in high-impact jumping or bounding activities: balance and static strength and strength response.
    To evaluate balance and static strength, the athlete should do a one-leg squat, ending in a standing position. An even better test is for the athlete to quarter squat two times his or her body weight (see Figure 3.1). Either or both of these tests should be completed before the athlete does any high-impact jumping or bound­ing. If these skills cannot be accomplished with relative ease, the athlete's strength is insufficient to safely perform plyometric activities.
    An alternate-leg five-step hop test is the best way to evaluate strength response. From a standing position, the athlete should do five continuous bounds on a single leg (see Figure 3.2) and then do the same thing on the other leg. The distances should be the same for both legs. If that isn't the case, the weak leg should be strengthened before high-level single-leg activities are attempted. A weak leg is a major cause of injury for both runners and jumpers. For some athletes, a month will take care of deficiencies in one or both legs. Other athletes may take a year or more to reach desired strength levels. These athletes must be brought along gradually before starting any high-stress activities.

    A coach should evaluate an athlete's strength in terms of the requirements for different events to determine whether to emphasize stretch reflex or maximum strength. For some athletes, a cycle or even a year may need to be devoted specifically to increasing strength. Elite jumpers require great amounts of eccentric and concentric strength. During a high jump takeoff, four to five times the body's weight is exerted through the takeoff leg into the ground. Similarly, the long jumper will exert a little over 10 times his or her body weight during takeoff, and the triple jumper exerts nearly 12 times his or her body weight (which is probably why it takes so long to develop a world-class triple jumper). This underscores why so much emphasis must be placed on jump strength activities.

Progression of Plyometric Drills

    Experience has shown that all jump strength training should be sequential, progressing from the simple, low-impact activities to the more complicated and stressful drills. The following sequence of activities corresponds to the activities that appear in the subsequent strength training program for jumpers.
    Rope Jumping. This is a relatively low­impact, high-energy activity. It is good to begin rope jumping in the summer and to increase speed and repetitions gradually.
    Lateral Bench Hops. This is an excellent drill for body awareness, arm-leg timing, and explosive power. It is used during every strength training session and also as a test to evaluate power three times a year. The athlete stands alongside a weight bench or 16- to 20-inch-high box and double-leg hops to the opposite side of the bench or box and back (see Figure 3.3). The goal is to complete as many ground contacts as possible on both sides of the bench/box in 20 seconds.
    Five-Step Hopping (Single Leg). This drill can be used as a training device as well as to evaluate balance, as described earlier. The idea is to balance repetitions of five bounds on each leg.
    Standing (Single Leg). To learn this drill, the athlete bounds in place using both arms and placing all emphasis on the ground sup­port leg. If done properly, the support leg will provide the power off the ground and the heel will come to the buttocks on each repetition. The athlete should not move to the next se­quence until this drill can be completed 20 times equally well on both legs.
    Single-Leg Bounds for Distance. This is similar to the single-leg in-place drill except that the athlete covers distance, doing either maximum repetitions or a specific number of repetitions (see Figure 3.4). For example, the athlete makes 14 ground contacts on the left followed by 14 on the right times four sets. Progressively greater distance should be cov­ered on each set. This drill provides the highest intensity when the athlete is most fatigued.
    RR-LL Bounding. This drill increases the skill level over single-leg bounds. The athlete (in motion) makes two ground contacts on the right leg followed by two ground contacts on the left leg (up to 30-100 meters).
    Double-Leg Bounds. This activity is done using boxes and/or hurdles. The athlete begins by stepping off a box and landing on both feet, then immediately jumps over a hurdle or up onto another box (see Figure 3.5). This drill can be done with either low or high repetitions. An alternative to this drill would be single-leg box or hurdle bounds at various heights (low for beginners).
Speed Bounds. This drill is generally used over short distances (20-40 meters). The athlete should concentrate on making a specified number of ground contacts. Early sessions should begin with 16 ground contacts, with the athlete progressing to 12 contacts for maximum speed late in the season. Speed bounding should be used in preparing for major competitions where speed is more important than power.
    Assisted or Downhill Training. This training system can be used throughout the preparation and competition seasons. An area with a slight decline and good footing should be se­lected and used throughout the year. The idea is to run down the hill, forcing a high leg turnover and a longer than normal stride length (not reaching). The athlete should run at a constant three-quarter effort (never more). The goal of this activity is to improve posture, leg recovery, and foot placement under the hips. The athlete should run 8 to 12 repetitions of 40 to 60 meters. As the season progresses, the athlete becomes more and more efficient. This exercise stretches the hamstrings and forces rapid leg turnover, enhancing both strength and speed. An alternative to downhill running is to run a downhill runway and incorporate a penultimate and a jump takeoff.
    Low Step-Up/Step-Down With Weights. This drill should be used at the completion of the power phase of the athlete's lifting cycle. A 6-inch box should be placed in the power lifting rack. Using a full bar and weights, the athlete steps (single leg) onto and off the box (see Figure 3.6). The athlete should begin with a load equal to his or her body weight (doing three to four repetitions) and gradually progress to three times that weight. This is a long-term exercise, and the athlete should not attempt to lift too much weight too soon.

Planning Training Programs for Jumpers

    There are several phases that comprise the athlete's training program. Moving from the
overall program down to the daily training session, these phases are:
   •  Macrocycle. The prefix macro means large, so this cycle would encompass our entire long-range training program. It might be a 5-year program, but most likely refers to a yearly training plan.
   •  Mesocycle. This term refers to a group of smaller training units. In some cases, the unit would last several weeks and would have a specific set of goals. It might be a unit in which aerobic activity is the major emphasis, or it might encompass special activities such as overload plyometrics. Sometimes a coach might want to limit a unit to half a mesocycle; that is, if a mesocycle is set for 6 weeks, a particular activity might be emphasized for only 3 weeks.
   •  Microcycle. This term is specific to small units. In most instances, a unit would last from a week to 10 days. This is shown in the weekly workouts included at the end of each specific event chapter.
   •  Session. For most purposes, a session is one training unit. If an athlete trains only once per day, it indicates one session. Sometime a coach prescribes a two-unit session each day, and in extreme instances, three sessions a day.
    The yearly macrocycle for jumpers can be broken down into six mesocycles:
     1. General preparation (4 weeks)
     2. Special preparation (6 weeks)
     3. Power development (3 weeks)
     4. Preparation for indoor competition (4 weeks)
     5. Power development (3 weeks)
     6. Preparation for outdoor competition (4 weeks)
    This program is designed to achieve a peak performance indoors and then an absolute peak during the outdoor championships.
    Planned performance training is the only guaranteed means of achieving success at a particular time. It is important that the athlete achieve his or her best performance at the right time. For example, the high school athlete's ultimate performance should occur during the state championships and the elite athlete's during the World Championships or the Olympic Games.
    Peaking at the desired time is not a matter of luck. It comes only through deliberate, planned preparation that entails a step-by-step physiological, psychological, and competitive set of progressive activities.
    For many years, athletes were trained at or near their maximum potential for as long as their bodies could tolerate. We now know that loads, duration, and intensity must be mixed and matched. For example, when volume increases, intensity must decrease.
    With any type of training, the body responds to stress by adapting to it. In fact, the adaptation is a new compensation, better known as super compensation. Note on Figure 3.7 that recovery or rest must precede super compensation. That means setting a high priority on the interruption of all types of training with proper amounts of rest to allow the body to recover before assuming additional stress.

    The general preparation phase is designed to place the athlete at a moderate level of fitness. Early in this phase, the primary emphasis is on aerobic conditioning and later shifts to aerobic power. General strength conditioning for all athletes is initiated using a low load with 10 to 12 repetitions.
    At the end of this phase, each athlete is tested with a single-leg five-hop test, a standing long jump, a standing triple jump, an overhead shot put, a lateral bench hop for 20 seconds, a 30­meter sprint, and a 3-mile run.

Preparation for Indoor Competition

    The indoor preparation phase should also be considered the preparation phase for high school or non indoor competitors. Outdoor preparation precludes strength activities for those college programs that consist of both indoor and outdoor seasons.
    The purpose of this phase is to reduce the volume of training and begin special speed activities. The intent is not to promote a backing off attitude toward training but to temper or moderate activities, particularly the strength training. Note that the load percentages range from 70% to 85% but there are fewer repetitions (see Figure 3.11).
    The bounding activities have changed from power to speed. Basically, the jumper's emphasis has now moved from strength development to maintenance, and the real priority is to move toward competition.

Preparation for Outdoor Competition

    The competition phase is perhaps the most complex for the coach to prescribe because the individual athletes' idiosyncrasies must be understood and their abilities assessed ac­curately to plan the activity immediately preceding competition. Some respond well to rest and some do not. Too often we intensify activity, and this is detrimental to the nerve recruitment properties that are necessary for high performances.
    The goal of this phase is to maintain strength levels yet provide sufficient recoveries (see Figure 3.12). All activity is performed at a moderate load with few repetitions. Ten days prior to a major competition, we want the athlete to complete the final strength work at a moderate level for a single maximum type activity. Everything should be performed at near top speed and with maximum recovery periods. The only concern is achieving high performance. There should be no technical changes. Confidence is the key---the athlete is ready to perform well, and he or she knows it.

Summary

    Several physiological considerations must be addressed when designing a strength and power program for jumpers. Training drills and activities must follow a progression that safely increases the athlete's workload, speed, and overall performance. A plyometrics program can assist in evaluating and improving the athlete's strength and speed. A comprehensive training program includes both general and specific preparation phases, power development, and preparation for competition. Together these components comprise a well rounded training program that will foster improvements in the four jumping events.

FROM: Complete Book of Jumps, Chapter 3, By Ed Jacoby and Bob Fraley