Long Jump

    The long jump is the most neglected jumping event. Too few coaches teach and monitor correct jumping technique, just as too few athletes really work at the event. It's as if everyone assumes that the fastest athlete will be the best long jumper. Although relatively simple, the long jump should be broken into components that can be developed individually. These ingredients are the keys to the effectiveness of the total long jump.

Keys to Long Jumping

      •  Achieve maximum speed in the approach
      •  Lower the hips in the penultimate stride and allow them to rise to maximum height at takeoff while maintaining speed
      •  Move the hips forward and up for maximum distance from board contact to foot release
      •  Prevent or neutralize forward rotation during flight
      •  Position the feet horizontally at maximum distance from the hips at landing

Approach

    An athlete who is fast and can conserve this velocity throughout the takeoff will be a good long jumper. Horizontal velocity in the long jump contributes more than two times the poten­tial distance to the total jump than does vertical velocity. The elite long jumper will leave the board at an angle of 20° or less. The faster the velocity, the higher and longer the center-of-mass trajectory.
    Ideally, the jumper will accelerate from the start to the finish of the approach. Acceleration is demonstrated by two distinct factors: an increase in stride length and an increase in stride frequency. Anything that causes the athlete to reduce stride length and thus to decelerate will result in an inferior jump. Therefore, the jumper's approach to the board at optimal stride length is a major factor in long jump performance.
 

Posture Through Acceleration

    Body posture during the first six to eight strides is one problem area. If the jumper pushes out hard from the takeoff mark and does not allow the body to gradually reach an upright position, the stride length will either shorten or lengthen in an irregular manner. As mentioned in other chapters, body posture must be a product of acceleration.
    As always, the most effective and efficient position for velocity is to be upright and tall. At the onset of acceleration, there is a pronounced forward lean, then gradually, as speed reaches the maximum, the body will naturally assume a tall, upright posture (see Figure 4.1). For a mature long jumper, this erect position should be reached in the first 12 to 14 strides.

Length of the Runway

    The length of the approach run is determined by how long it takes the athlete to reach top speed. The elite athlete will generally reach top speed in approximately 20 to 22 strides; the developing athlete will reach this ultimate speed in 16 to 18 strides. The coach and the athlete can best determine this distance on the track and away from the runway. Only after the athlete has demonstrated an optimum length for an approach run should it be incorporated onto the actual runway. Remember that the sole purpose of the runway is for the athlete to reach the takeoff point at the fastest possible velocity. The basic rule to follow is: Set the runway to fit the individual's acceleration curve; the acceleration curve should not be dictated by runway length.
    To achieve maximum acceleration as efficiently as possible, the body will rise at a con­stant rate. This postural change is a direct result of stride length and frequency gradually and smoothly increasing during each step. If there is any disruption of progressive posture, there will also be a disruptive change in stride patterns. This, of course, will affect maximum acceleration over a given distance and most likely reduce jump distance.
    During the 1990 TAC Championships in Norwalk, California, Dr. James Hay, TAC/ USOC biomechanist in charge of the horizontal jumps, performed a biomechanical analysis of several jumpers. One of the jumpers evaluated was future world record holder Mike Powell. The analysis determined that Powell was having difficulty with general progression of stride length.
    The report of the analysis can be used to evaluate the progression and consistency of Powell's full run-up, particularly the last four strides prior to the jump. In Mike's best jump of 8.24 meters (Table 4.1), note that there is a slight difference between strides 9 and 10. There is an increase, but it is not significant. In Mike's second-best jump of 8.13 meters, stride 6 is shorter than stride 5. However, the big problem occurs in strides 18 to 23; in every trial, there is a decrease in length on nearly every stride.

    Dr. Hay also evaluated Carl Lewis (see Figure 4.2 and Table 4.2). Although Lewis's evaluation only included his last four strides, in contrast to Powell's runway, you will note a general progression of stride length until the last step, which is shortened to achieve a high hip position.

    Inconsistencies in stride length can be due to various reasons, such as wind, either behind or into the jumper, fatigue, soreness, etc. In some cases, runway length needs to be adjusted; however, most often the athlete makes the necessary adjustment subconsciously. This visual control or steering, as it is called, tends to occur so that the athlete can hit the takeoff board accurately. Some athletes are good at this; others lack this specific skill.
    The coaching implication of this steering mechanism is that the automatic adjustment is completed around five steps prior to takeoff. However, the mechanical implication is that any adjustments are subtle and that velocity is not lost.
    In the long jump as well as the triple jump, the point at which the steering is completed will be approximately five strides prior to take­off. This is significant because it means that, due to the earlier adjustments, the last five strides will be the most consistent of the entire runway.
    For this reason, the four-step coach's mark is established. If the athlete has determined to jump, the last four strides leading into the jump will have a constant average distance. If the average of the last four strides equals 8 feet, the coach's mark will be 32 feet from the takeoff board.
    The average of the last four steps should be computed over many practice runways without the takeoff board. This is so that the athlete can accelerate through his or her entire 16 to 20 strides without having to make the steering adjustments necessary to hit the board. The coach should measure the distance from the fourth step out to the toe of the takeoff foot at foot release of the jump. This distance will provide a suitable four-step coach's mark.
    As the athlete becomes stronger, new check marks must be computed. For developing athletes, this mark will progress from 6 inches to a foot within a year. Always establish the mark away from the runway, where the athlete can freewheel into the takeoff with no fear of fouling. Ideally, within reason, the coach's mark should move back gradually, depending on the athlete's ability to maintain velocity and erect posture into and off the takeoff board.
    If the athlete has to reach to hit the board from the four-step mark, then due to the posture-acceleration relationship, this will cause the athlete to lean back too far and thus decelerate. Obviously, the check mark is too far from the board.

    Conversely, if the stride length begins to shorten to allow the jumper to hit the board, deceleration is again occurring and the check mark is too close to the board.
    Over the years, Carl Lewis's long jumps have been evaluated in depth by Dr. Hay. In reading the various reports on Lewis, it is interesting to note that little attention was paid to his technique in the air. Most of the investiga­tion concentrated on speed at takeoff, hip height, and stride length from the coach's mark at four strides from actual takeoff.
    The distance of the coach's mark varied from 8.66 meters (28 feet 5 inches) to 10.27 meters (33 feet 8 inches). The studies indicated that Lewis's best jumps occurred when the four-stride distance was the greatest. In essence, the 33-foot 8-inch mark-provided greater horizontal velocity at takeoff, resulting in a greater jump distance.
    It should be noted, however, that in one competition, the 1986 TAC Meet, Lewis's fourth stride distance from takeoff was significantly longer. It increased to 10.37 meters (34 feet), and his actual long jump distances dropped to 8.16 meters (26 feet 9-1/4 inches) and 8.35 meters (27 feet 4-3/4 inches), which for Lewis were not good jumping efforts.

Transition From Run-Up to Jump

    At some point, the athlete must prepare his or her body to move from a near-maximum horizontal velocity to vertical impulse. To make this transition, the jumper's hips must settle or lower. The key is to make this adjustment with as little effect on speed as possible. To accom­plish this, the next to last stride must be lengthened slightly. As the stride increases a little beyond the normal acceleration length (6 feet 9 inches), the hips will lower naturally (see Tables 4.3 and 4.4). This places the hips in a position so that on the final step, the center of mass can move from a low to a high position and from initial foot contact to foot release in the jump. This is the basis of the vertical component.

    Foot contact during these last two steps is also of great importance. The actual lowering during the penultimate step is enhanced by landing flat-footed with the foot directly under the hips and moving backward actively. The final step of the takeoff foot onto the board should also be flat so that the full force is directed into the board over a short time period. If the foot contact is on the toe, the ankle will be forced to flex, causing a dissipation of force and a longer duration on the board than desired. On the other hand, if the foot lands on the heel, it causes a braking action and a large horizontal speed reduction. The emphasis of a good takeoff is the distance (the longer, the better) the hip moves from an active foot touch­down until foot release.
    Biomechanical studies of the duration of foot contact on the board have led to an interesting conclusion. Regardless of the athlete's speed coming into the board, the foot contact duration remains nearly the same. Comparing a slow athlete running at 6 meters per second (almost a jog) to an athlete running at 11 meters per second, there is almost no difference in the duration of foot contact. With increased speed, the hips simply pass the support foot faster and produce a more effective stretch reflex in the muscles. In lay terms, the foot release speed is a desired outcome, but what actually happens is that the center of mass moves the same distance but with a lower trajectory and a much higher velocity from point A to point B.

Takeoff

    The most important factor in an effective take­off is to create as large a vertical force as possible without losing horizontal speed. The actual takeoff should be thought of as the entire period from touchdown to foot release. A great deal must happen during the short time the planting foot is in contact with the board. During this time, the jumper's goal is to move the hips, or more specifically, the center of mass, from a low to as high a position as possible; at the same time, the hip height must be kept within a range that will allow speed to be main­tained. Not only does the jumper want to produce as long a push as possible, he or she must also "load" the takeoff leg to initiate the myotonic stretch reflex. Physiologically, when a muscle is stretched, it then automatically contracts. The faster it is stretched, the greater the contraction. The "Plyometrics Training" section in chapter 3 describes the loading stimulus.
    These two factors, coupled with transference of momentum from the leading knee and the fast-moving arms, provide the large impulse the jumper needs. At takeoff, the jumper wants as little bending or flexing of the knee and hip as possible while going through the compression phase of the jump. As the free leg moves forward, the heel should pass close to the buttocks with the angle closed at the knee joint. This action will provide maximum speed of the knee, also expressed as angular momentum of the knee. The speed of the knee will be transferred directly into the support leg as an added force exerted into the ground. Along with a vigorous arm action, this produces a ground force that is redirected back into the jumper. As the leading knee ap­proaches 90° from the vertical axis, the limb naturally decelerates, which, coupled with deceleration of the arms, causes an unweighting in conjunction with the extension of the ankle, knee, and hip and propels the body off the ground at precisely the same instant. In addition to the above, the jumper wants an absolute upright and extended posture to en­able the center of mass to be at its ultimate height.
    Long jumpers use three or four styles of takeoff. These styles vary in effectiveness and should be experimented with to see what works best.

Kick Style
    This technique is used by jumpers who em­ploy the hitch-kick jumping technique; however, it is appropriate for the jumper who anticipates the active leg cycling before a full impulse has been directed into the board. It does not allow full extension of the hips or complete application of impulse. The foot is kicked forward prior to ground release (see Figure 4.3).

Double-Arm Style

    Although this style is not well known, it has been used effectively by most of the great hang­style jumpers over the past 30 years, including Robert Emmiyan and Igor Ter-Ovanesyan of the former Soviet Union and Gregory Bell of the United States. It is difficult to achieve the maximum benefits of this style without slowing the horizontal speed of the run-up; however, it is an effective way of developing a large transference of force into the takeoff leg by moving both arms in a vertical direction. For jumpers who use the hang technique, the double-arm style adapts nicely to the double­arm swing that accompanies the hang jump. Both arms move in a vertical direction to produce high hip height and a large impulse (see Figure 4.4).

Sprint Takeoff

    This style has a classical single-arm action that resembles a sprinter in full stride (see Figure 4.5). It is preferred by most coaches and is often emphasized by technical writers who are attempting to describe a takeoff that conserves speed while running off the board. This technique can be adapted to any style of jump but is best used with the hitch kick. Although this style is the most popular, it is not necessarily the best. It does not provide maximum arm impulse into the takeoff leg and often does not allow the body to be upright and extended. However, it does provide a high hip position.

Power Sprint or Bounding Takeoff
    If the primary goal is to provide maximum impulse along with speed through the takeoff and a high hip position, the bounding takeoff is probably the best choice for the hitch-kick jumper. It would rank slightly ahead of the double-arm style because it allows for speed maintenance into the takeoff. As shown in Figure 4.6, the right arm is extended, which at takeoff provides some counter rotation to the forward rotation that occurs while the athlete is airborne. Because of the right arm extension, the bounding takeoff blends nicely into the flight behavior of both the hitch-kick and hang styles.

Airborne Technique

    As discussed previously, the flight curve of the long jumper is determined solely at takeoff and is the result of velocity and takeoff angle. This curve cannot be altered by any motions per­formed by the long jumper during the flight phase of the jump.
    Theoretically, the distance attained by the jumper would be determined by the speed and angle achieved at takeoff. However, the human body reacts differently than a projectile shot out of a cannon.
    When the jumping foot is planted, a bio­mechanical phenomenon called forward rotation occurs. During foot contact, deceleration or blocking of forward speed takes place. The amount of this deceleration depends on two factors: the distance forward of the hips at which the foot strikes or the rearward speed of the foot and leg prior to foot strike. When braking occurs, the original speed is transferred upward; therefore, all parts of the body above the foot begin to accelerate beyond the stationary foot.
    In most track and field events, this "hinge moment" or blocking is utilized to produce optimum performances, especially in the throws. However, in the long jump and triple jump, the added speed of the upper body causes an undesirable forward rotation (see Figure 4.7). If the action is unchecked, the body goes into a frontal somersault motion about the hips, causing the feet to land in the pit prematurely or, even worse, a face-first landing.

    In jumping events, especially while moving at high speeds, the foot contacts the ground at a point in front of the center of mass. The distance in front of the hips is determined by the amount of vertical velocity needed. The body pivots over and past the takeoff foot, causing a rotation around the transverse axis through the foot. Rotation is also about a trans­verse axis through the center of mass.
    This action carries on into the flight path of the jumper and creates an undesirable forward rotation in the long jump. The jumper creates body manipulations that either reduce or elimi­nate this problem during the flight phase of the jump (Doolittle, 1988).
    Considering the above discussion, the only reason for any in-flight activity is to prevent or reduce this natural forward rotation. Such activity will not cause the hips to travel any additional distance; however, it will provide better balance and place the body in a position for a more efficient landing.
    There are basically three styles of in-air ac­tivity for the long jumper: the sail, the hang, and some version of the hitch kick. All others are adaptations of these three styles. Only two of these styles are effective when judged ac­cording to biomechanical principles.
 

Sail Technique

    The sail technique is the simplest because it involves no complex movement; however, it is seldom used by successful jumpers because of the difficulty in keeping the body balanced through the entire parabola of the flight pat­tern. The jumper is likely to begin a premature rotation, and the weight in front of the hips adds impetus to this already problematic for­ward rotation. The free leg moves directly out in front of the hips and is soon joined by the takeoff leg. This large amount of total weight moves the center of gravity out in front of the hips, and the jumper's legs quickly drop into the pit before the flight curve is completed (see Figure 4.8).

Hang Style

    Although this style has been in mothballs for about 20 years, it has recently received much attention due to the efforts of Robert Emmiyan of the former Soviet Union. This has caused a resurgence of the hang-style jump.
    After the takeoff, the jumper allows the free leg to drop until it is directly under the hips (see Figure 4.9). This long, narrow silhouette of the body causes the least possible rotation as both the arm and leg (hand and foot) are a maximum distance away from the hips (the theoretical center of mass). Long levers rotate more slowly than short levers.

    The free leg, which has dropped directly under the hips, will eventually be joined by the takeoff leg. We call this position 180°. At this point, the knees of both legs are directly under the hips. This is the most stable in-flight posi­tion because very little rotation can occur. The 180° leg position is held for a brief period and then reduced to 90° as the legs flex at the knees. It is important that the knees be flexed so that the feet swing through to land with the fastest possible angular momentum.
    The arms are extended at the elbow and brought around to reach high above the head parallel to the 90° position of the knees. This flexed angle allows the legs to recover to the front quickly, similar to the recovery leg of a sprinter.
    The" old style" of the hang (shown in Figure 4.10), which is characterized by an arched back, probably should not be taught because it decreases the length of the lever formed in the 90° knee bend.

Hitch-Kick Style
    The hitch kick is described as a continual run­ning action during the flight phase of the jump (see Figure 4.11). Over the years, this style has produced the best marks by the top jumpers in the world. Again, the only purpose of this cycling motion is to counteract and reduce forward rotation during the jump. This style is designed to set up secondary rotations of both the arms and legs that mechanically counteract the rotations established at takeoff.

    A variety of hitch-kick styles is prevalent among long jumpers at all levels of skill development. The biggest difference is probably found between the elite athlete and the young jumper who cannot yet achieve the time in the air required for a full two-and-one-half-step hitch-kick jump.
    The majority of athletes who employ this style of jump should use a single-step arm and leg cycle. Although less popular, this style is more suitable for the young jumper because the full two-and-one-half step technique usually causes a premature landing. For those who cannot achieve the full two and one-half steps, it is probably best to work with the hang style of jump rather than combat the potential of a premature landing.
    The effectiveness of this style is evaluated based on the body's posture in the air after takeoff. Problems with using the hitch kick are most likely to occur when the athlete at­tempts to begin the cycling motions prior to taking full advantage of the takeoff impulse. The jumper must execute the full takeoff (i.e., moving the hips as high and as far forward of the board as anatomically possible) before beginning any in-flight maneuvers. Figure 4.12 shows trunk, head, and arm position at landing and the height of the center of mass in a variety of positions. Point (a) provides the low­est possible position of center of gravity, thereby denoting the jumper who was best able to remain on the flight curve for the longest possible time.

Landing

    The main objective of the landing is to allow the flight curve to be fully utilized. To attain this goal, the jumper must accomplish two components. The first is to position the feet at a maximum horizontal distance in front of the hips; however, this motion can be over emphasized because complete utilization of this principle will inevitably cause the jumper to fall back at landing (see Figure 4.13). The second component is to allow the hips or center of gravity to sink to the lowest possible position at ground contact. This is best achieved just prior to landing if the feet are aligned slightly above the normal parabolic curve of the center of mass. Therefore, prior to landing, the jumper wants his or her feet to be higher than the hips.

    Compared to the other jumping events, the long jump is relatively simple. In this country, from the high school level up, with the huge talent pool of speed, it would be wise to begin generating the same enthusiasm for the long jump as we do for the sprints. Not all long jumpers can become great sprinters-but cer­tainly most great sprinters have the potential of becoming great long jumpers.

Long Jump Training Program

    Workout samples for the long jump follow for your review (see Figures 4.14 to 4.17). There is a sample weekly workout for the general preparation, specific preparation, power development, and competition mesocycles. Keep in mind that these are only samples. Although they are appropriate for a college-level athlete, they should not be used as is. Workouts should be designed to fit a specific athlete and can only be developed with complete understanding of his or her capabilities, including lead-up activities, experience, and talent level.
    General training fundamentals are listed in the left column of each workout. The specific activities for each day of the week are listed in the right column. Each weekly workout includes running, and emphasis is placed on strength, technical, multithrow, flexibility, co­ordination, and psychological areas.

FROM: Complete Book of Jumps, Chapter 4, By Ed Jacoby and Bob Fraley