Discus

Jay Silvester

    The discus throw that we know today evolved from the discus throw that was part of the ancient Olympic Pentathlon, which also included the long jump, javelin throw, stade race, and wrestling.
    Myron's classic statue Discobolus is a stirring portrayal of the human body in a pose with a discus. To modern throwers, the position depicted in the Discobolus statue has some similarities to the "power position" achieved just before the delivery. We know that ancient throwers did not throw from a circle; they used a run­up area similar to that used in the javelin throw. Nor were the weight and size of the discus standard from competition to competition. Disci from 4 to 15 pounds (1.8 to 6.8 kilograms) are on display in Greek museums.
    When the modern Olympic Games began in 1896, there were two versions of throwing the discus. One was a standing throw from a sloping platform (ancient style), and the other was a "free style." Gradually the event moved away from the standing throw to throwing from a square area. However, by 1912 the discus throw was contested, as it is today, from a 2.5-meter-diameter circle.
    For many years these throwing circles were outlined on dirt or grass. The dirt throwing circles were the favorite because they could be carefully watered and tamped to produce a relatively stable and consistent throwing surface. "Field" shoes with one-inch spikes were the shoe of choice for shot and discus throwers. With such shoes the dirt circles were quickly "chewed up." Throwers spent many hours grooming the throwing circles. In the 1950s circles constructed first with asphalt and then concrete made their appearance. Throwing shoes became spikeless flats. Because of its consistent surface and almost zero maintenance, concrete became the favorite, and that is the standard today. There are still many friction problems with concrete. Circles are frequently either too slippery or too abrasive for the best footing, but throwers make do.
    The rules describing the diameter, thickness at various points, symmetry, smoothness of surfaces, and minimum weight of the discus have been the same for many years. However, the material of construction and the rim weighting of the discus have changed. Variable degrees of rim weighting are much tested and researched in modern discus construction.
    To be successful, discus throwers must learn to move through the throwing technique at high velocity, with one or more periods of rapid acceleration, while maintaining precise control of the body and the implement. Great speed and precision are required for success in most, if not all, sports of the 21st century.
    The challenge to the thrower is to hit each mechanical position precisely while moving at very high velocity with very efficient rhythm (timing or sequencing of the motion). The challenge in writing this book is to describe the throw in a way that allows you to learn the positions and feel the speed and rhythm.

Rhythm and Mechanics

    The emphasis on mechanical positions in this chapter might leave you feeling that a discus thrower is like a robot, mechanically moving from one position to another without fluidity or grace. Nothing could be more incorrect for this or any other throwing event. Indeed, rhythm, or beautifully sequencing the various mechanical actions into a fluidly accelerating whole, is of far greater importance than moving through a throw with precise attention to each body position. In this chapter I hope to impart not only a cognitive understanding of the various positions or phases of the total throw but also ultimately a feel for them as part of a rhythmic whole.
 

Throwing Keys
    There are many "throwing keys" (technical emphases) that an athlete might attend to, perhaps thousands. Each thrower must go through the process of experiencing this myriad of technical focus points, gradually eliminating those that have no lasting positive effect on performance while working hard to make the "golden keys" (those that produce superior performance) part of his or her automatic motor pattern. It is my experience that each individual has only a few throwing keys that will consistently have a significant impact on how far or how well that person throws.
    Almost every technical emphasis seems to "feel good" the first time an athlete tries it. However, after the second or third workout most of those technical emphases no longer cause the throw to feel better or fly a bit farther. Over time (after many throws) a few of these technical concepts seem to produce positive results consistently. These are the golden keys for that athlete. These keys mayor may not be the same for other athletes. The challenge to the coach and the athlete is to find these helpful keys and then work on them until the athlete develops a fluid, technically efficient throw.
 

Feelings and Feedback
    To the athlete everything about the discus throw technique is a feeling. All throwers generally know what a good throw feels like. Although a 120-foot (37­meter) thrower doesn't know how a 200-foot (61-meter) throw feels, he or she knows how a "good" throw feels. A good throw is what coaches and athletes seek.
    Athletes must have the ability to focus their minds on any body part and feel what happens when they try to make a particular movement. While the ath­lete can discern whether the movement felt good, it is also important to know where the feet and other body parts were while making the movement as well as whether it looked or felt good from the coach's perspective. Feedback from the coach, other athletes, or videotape can be very important.
    Athletes need to know the distance of most throws. The very important test of all technical keys is this: Did this technical key, when executed reasonably well, improve or at least maintain good performance? To summarize, then, throwers are helped by two kinds of feedback:
       1. Their own sensations
       2. The coach's information, including video, comments on rhythm, feet, and body positions, and the distance of the throw
    Coaches need to understand that athletes can normally focus on only one throwing key on any given throw. Coaches need to see mechanical positions and feel good rhythm kinesthetically to teach it. They help athletes by carefully crafting comments, physically showing positions or rhythm, and by us­ing video to consider rhythm and positions in more depth. Coaches and ath­letes must work together to develop a throw that contains beautiful rhythm and sound technical positions, and feels great.
    When an inexperienced thrower throws the discus for the first time, the results will be predictably poor. The process from that point to becoming a competent thrower is one that includes becoming conditioned and learning and refining skills (both physical and psychological). While large leaps some­times happen in short periods of time, most improvement comes rather slowly. Each small technical or conditioning improvement results in the ability to throw farther.
    Many technical concepts are discussed in this book. Each one holds potential for longer throws. How much longer cannot be predicted because results differ among throwers. Technical keys that work well for one thrower may not work as well for another. However, it is true that some positions or move­ments are common among better throwers. These will be amply emphasized.

Discus Fundamentals

    It is possible to discuss technique in the discus throw without addressing the differences in technical movements, or style, among throwers. I could con­tinue referring to the differences among throwers as variations of one general technique as has been done since at least the 1920s. However, after careful consideration I have decided that in this book I will describe two styles of throwing the discus:
       1. Reversing technique
       2. Nonreversing technique
    Describing the techniques in this manner will make it easier for you to learn how to teach or master each. Even so, many characteristics of the two techniques are the same. This section addresses issues that are common to both techniques, including the proper way to grip the discus, the orbit or path of the discus, separation of the upper and lower body, control of the discus at release, and prethrow preparation.
 

Discus Grip
    Most accomplished throwers grip the discus with all fingers rather close to­gether-the first two fingers very close together (less than 1/8 inch apart) and the next two not spread very far, perhaps 1/4 to 1/2 inch. The thumb lies along­side the index finger separated by about 1 inch. See figure 4.la.
    The contact points of the discus and the hand are very important. The discus is held firmly in the fingers just beyond the distal (last) joints. The thumb contacts the discus on the outside of the thumb from the last joint to the end of the thumb. Light to moderate thumb pressure is necessary to produce good flight. If you look carefully at the hand of a good thrower holding the discus, you will see a cupped or somewhat clawed hand (figure 4.1 b). The discus is in contact with the muscle pads around the palm both medial to the little finger and the thumb, but not with the palm or any portion of the fingers other than that already described.

    The hand of an experienced thrower appears to be placed on the rear two thirds of the implement, as shown in figure 4.1a. Gripping and carrying the discus in this manner helps a thrower develop a release that transfers maxi­mal energy with beautiful flight. Good flight and energy transfer result from a combination of forces and control movements that come together properly at release.

Discus orbit or path
    The words orbit and path are used interchangeably to describe the discus movement/positions from the starting stance through delivery. This path will be discussed here at the outset, then again at each stage of the throw.
    In the early part of the 20th century, the term wave was used to define the movement of the discus as it was carried or moved through the circle from start to delivery. This wave concept is generally applicable today. The major technical unknown is how high and low the discus should move during its wavelike journey from start through delivery. The general answer is that each athlete needs to experiment to find what feels best. However, moderate ups and downs often feel better than extremes. Try both the extremes and more moderate positions of the discus before choosing.
    When the discus is in a position directly opposite the throwing direction (12 o'clock), it is carried low (figure 4.2a). This low position occurs twice during the throw, once near the beginning of the movement just after right foot pushoff (figure 4.6e), and again in the center of the circle in the midstage of the delivery motion (figure 4.6j).

    When the discus is in the throwing direction (6 o'clock), it is moved through a relatively high path (figure 4.2b). This "discus in the throwing direction" happens three times during the throw: first during windup, then in the center of the circle just at the beginning of the power position, and again as the discus is delivered. It is not crucial that the discus be carried high during the windup. The most neglected and perhaps most important of these high discus positions occurs at the beginning of the power position in the center of the circle (figure 4.6i). By expending energy to get the discus up at this midpoint of the throw, an advantage in acceleration results from gravitational assistance when the discus is pulled down from this high position as the delivery begins. This concept will be treated in greater detail in the discussion of the delivery motion of the throw.
    The majority of this high-low movement of the discus is the natural result of the movement of the shoulders; however, purposeful raising and lowering of the discus is helpful and often necessary to teach or learn the best positions.
 

Separation of the Upper and Lower Body
    A state of body and mind is helpful to get the proper feeling when you move through a windup or any other phase of the throw. I refer to this mental state as separation of the lower and upper body. The lower body (hips and legs) is a very active, hardworking entity that drives you around and across the circle, while the upper body (torso, arms, neck, and head), in a very relaxed manner, gets the discus up and back and then waits. The upper body waits (stalls, or slows in its rotation) and relaxes (the left arm, if used properly, is very helpful in this action) while the lower body torques (winds up) the muscles, tendons, ligaments, fascia, and any other elastic tissue as much as possible. (See figure 4.6e-i to observe the relaxed torque of the upper body.) Then, at the last possible moment, the torqued body unwinds with a tremendous flow of energy from the lifting and driving up and around legs, to the hips, torso, shoulder, arm, and hand. (See figure 4.6i-1.) I call this the long pull. The long pull is a marvelous feeling. Approximately 70 to 80 percent of the release velocity is derived from this lifting, unwinding, and driving delivery motion.
 

Releasing the Discus for Efficient Energy Transfer and Maximum Aerodynamic Efficiency
    When delivering the discus, energy transfer and the most advantageous dis­cus orientation for efficient flight in the atmosphere are crucial. The shape of the discus gives it its aerodynamic quality. A discus released with correct aero­dynamic orientation will fly farther than one thrown incorrectly. For most situ­ations the best discus orientation for the most efficient energy transfer and best flight at release is with the outside edge down about 5 to 10 degrees and the leading edge slightly up (2 to 5 degrees), as shown in figure 4.3. If there is a direct right cross wind (90 degrees from the right), the outside edge should be level at release, not down.

    You will benefit greatly from having a prethrow routine that settles your nerves and prepares you mentally to make a good throw, particularly in competitive situations. This routine may begin before entering the circle or as you enter, but be sure to develop a comfortable system of preparing to make a throw. The prethrow routine should include the following:

       1. Relaxing visualization of the direction and flight of the discus
       2. Careful entry into the circle and exact positioning of the feet
       3. Preliminary rhythmic windup(s)
       4. Windup key that puts the body on automatic
 

Reversing Technique
    In discus throwing, the term reverse derives from the action that naturally occurs for most discus throwers when using the side arm sling. The feet re­verse their delivery positions. For example, a right-handed thrower would deliver the discus with the left foot forward and the right foot back. The violence of the throw (lifting and driving the right hip, shoulder, and arm into the throw) usually results in the right side being driven to the front while the left side rotates to the rear---thus the term reversing, which is short for reversing the positions of the feet.
 

Starting Stance
    To properly orient a thrower or coach in the circle, two things are necessary:
       1. Clock system imposed on the circle with 6 o'clock as the direction of the throw (figure 4.4)
       2. Line bisecting the circle from 12 to 6 o'clock

    To be in the proper starting stance, face 180 degrees away from the throwing direction; your feet should be wider than shoulder width (figure 4.5). Your left foot should be either on the line or slightly left toward 11 o'clock. All phases of the throw are important, but I consider the phases from the start through the end of the first single-support phase as the most crucial. Double support means two feet on the ground. Single support refers to only one foot on the ground. Your feet should be wider than shoulder width for stability and also for the potential to move from the right to the left foot to allow somewhat of a running start. By running start I'm referring to the body mass moving over a range (width of stance) to develop momentum before moving across the circle.

Windup
    It is important that you develop a relaxed rhythm during this move. Strive to keep your upper body relaxed. In the windup position 60 to 70 percent of your body weight should be on your right foot. Keep your knees bent (figure 4.6a). The beginning movements demand great balance. Stay low or move from high to low to achieve this balance. Your right foot stays planted, but your left foot turns freely with your left knee bending medially. Contact the circle with your left foot on the medial side of the ball of the foot or on the toe of the foot. Because your right foot stays planted, you will feel some torque in your right leg. At the completion of the windup (figure 4.6a) you should be standing with some bend in your legs and hips (about 80 to 90 percent of normal height). A key for consideration: Some throwers like to develop a feeling of torque at the completion of the windup that is very similar to if not the same as the torque developed in the power position.
    Most accomplished throwers take only one windup. I took three. Some beginners take too many. Choose a number between one and three and make it work for you. As your upper body winds back, carry the discus high but not higher than shoulder height. Wind your throwing arm back until your arms are perpendicular to the throwing direction. Some throwers may not go that far and some may go farther.
 

First Double-Support Through First Single-Support Phase
    As you complete the windup and begin turning into the throw, transfer your body weight to your left leg (figure 4.6, b through c). Lower your center of mass and pull your left foot down on the inside ball of your foot (figure 4.6b) and rotate until your foot is pointing at 7 or 8 o'clock (figure 4.6, c through e). Keeping it relatively straight, swing your left arm wide and to the left. Some throwers straighten the left arm, others do not, but all sweep it from about 2 or 1 o'clock around to between 6 and 4:30 o'clock, essentially over the left thigh. Do not rotate your left arm ahead of your left thigh until perhaps after left foot liftoff. When your left arm reaches approximately the 4:30 position, it stalls to begin assisting the slowing of the upper body necessary to develop maximal torque for the delivery phase.
    Most beginners over rotate out of the back of the circle with both feet and their upper body. Associated with this over rotation is throwing the left arm far ahead of the left thigh completely around to a position pointing to the back of the circle-12 o'clock. Coaches should work hard to help beginners stop the rotation of the left foot at the 7 o'clock position and keep the left arm over the left thigh as they turn out of the back of the circle.
    The right leg is picked up relatively early (beginning the first single-support phase) and swung wide and at a low to medium height around the left leg (figure 4.6, c through f). Proper use of the right leg is very important in discus throwing. The pickup of the right leg can only occur when the body weight has been transferred to the left (figure 4.6c). Some coaches advocate delaying the right leg pickup as long as possible. Others suggest picking it up early. The difference in timing of either an early or delayed pickup is not large, but the feelings are definitely different. In all cases right leg pickup can only occur as the body weight is shifted to the left leg and the rotating left knee has spread the knees, putting the muscles of both left and right inner thighs on some stretch.

    The difference in early and late pickup is the degree of inner leg stretch allowed before the right foot clears the circle. If a thrower delays the right leg pickup until the right shoulder passes the right hip (figure 4.7a), there is a necessary "catching up" that the right hip must do to create torque for the delivery. This catching up can easily create a jerk in the throw as the shoulders are delayed or the hips are forcefully driven ahead. Picking up the right foot as soon as possible, thereby keeping the right shoulder slightly behind the right hip from the start, would appear to be the better alternative (figure 4.7b). As the movement proceeds around the left leg and into the circle, the degree of torque between the upper torso and the hips is minimal.

Importance of the Movement Around the Left Leg at the Beginning of the Throw
    This section describes how a good discus thrower moves around the left leg and enters the circle. (See figure 4.6, a through f.) This is. arguably the most important movement in the entire throw. Here are some helpful keys:
      •  Stay relatively low (bent legs); you can "fall" or "drop" into this low position.
      •  Sweep the right leg at a low or medium height.
      •  Sit and lean toward 9:30 (to the left rear) as you begin the rotating drive out of the back of the circle.

      •  Do not let your line of gravity move too quickly toward the throwing direc­tion; move primarily left in the initial stages when going from double to single support.
      •  Feel that you have moved left primarily by shifting your weight left with only a small degree of rotation; then post your left foot pointing at about 7 o'clock, and swing your right side around it as you lean and drive into the circle.
    With your left foot pointing at about 7 o'clock, your left leg becomes some­what of a post. Swing your body around this post; your natural lower-body lean (shoulders remain rather level) in the throwing direction will place your line of gravity directly in front (toward the throwing direction) of your left foot (figure 4.6d).
    Bend your right leg as it clears the circle (figure 4.6e). Be sure to keep your right leg relatively low and out away from your left knee and sweep it wide around to the 10 o'clock area. When your sweeping right leg is at about 12 o'clock, it is quite straight (figure 4.8); then, as you rotate into the throwing direction, flex your right leg again and lift it slightly (figure 4.6f).

    This slight lifting is your right leg's contribution to the subtle jump that oc­curs as your left leg thrusts your body forward and up, clearing the back of the circle. Additionally, if your right leg did not bend and lift at this juncture of the throw, it would possibly, because of the acute lean of your body, hit the surface of the circle. The discus is carried rather low and behind the right hip around the back of the circle. (See figure 4.2a.)
    Continue the flexed rotation of your left leg until your body begins facing the direction of the throw (figure 4.6e).
    At this point you should experience a rapid left leg thrust that is timed with the lower-body lean to drive your body forcefully across the circle with a subtle lift or jump.
 

Flight Phase
    As a result of the subtle lift described in the previous paragraph, you should become briefly airborne. The left leg thrust combined with lower-body lean should produce a powerful linear drive in the throwing direction (figure 4.9). It is crucial that you learn to combine this linear drive from body lean and left leg thrust with a strong rotary force from the sweeping right leg to maximize momentum development. Too much linear drive produces a stalling when your right foot lands near the center of the circle. In this case you must reduce the linear force or increase the rotary force. The latter would be the preferred solution. Most beginners do not experience this problem. Almost all novice discus throwers over rotate or spin through the circle without developing sig­nificant linear force.

Creating Momentum at the Beginning of the Throwing Movement

    The 2.5-meter (8-foot, 2 1/2 inch) distance across the throwing circle is a run-up area wherein throwers are allowed to develop as much energy or momentum as possible. Following is a list of momentum-developing techniques you can use as you begin the throw:
     1. Body mass movement from the right leg to the left leg.
     2. Push off of the right leg just before pickup (minimal force).
     3. Left foot/leg pulling action as it pulls the body left at the start of the throw.
     4. Sweeping left arm.
     5. Body lean or moving the line of gravity beyond the base of support. The basis of translation of the human body is moving the line of gravity (a line from di­rectly above through the body's center of mass) beyond the base of support (the outside dimensions of the feet when standing). Body lean puts the mass in motion, which creates a degree of momentum that can be substantial.
     6. Sweeping right leg. The wide-sweeping right leg creates greater momentum than the right leg kept close to the left leg. Sweeping the right leg wide is an important momentum-producing move.
     7. Thrust of the left leg and foot.
    The degree of kinetic energy/momentum derived from these techniques depends on your mass, power, and skill.

Discus Path From Start to High Point
    As you move around your left leg into the circle from the first single-support position, carry the discus slightly behind your right hip, relatively low (see figure 4.6d). As the discus rounds the left leg and starts into the direction of the throw, it rises on a sloping path to the high point of the throw (about 7 o'clock) that occurs at or shortly after right leg touchdown (second single support) (see figure 4.6i). Your left arm, which has been actively sweeping in a relatively wide arc around the left side, sweeps to near the 4:30 area, where it slows and may very briefly stop. This stalls your torso while your lower body continues rotating, thereby developing torque between your torso and hips.
 

Right Foot Touchdown or Second Single-Support Phase
    Continuing the technique description, the position following the flight phase is the right foot touchdown or second single-support phase. Because driving out of the back of the circle is so crucial, and because it is most efficient to have a subtle jump rather than a high jump, your right foot should contact the circle with the heel pointing between 8 and 9 o'clock. (See figure 4.6, g and h.)
    As the flight phase begins, initiate the torquing process by stalling your left arm and shoulder while your lower body continues to rotate. As the move­ment continues through right foot touchdown, the torque between your torso and hips that develops significantly in the flight phase increases until you have achieved the predelivery maximal torque position (figure 4.6h). This normally occurs slightly before left foot touchdown (second double support).
 

Left Arm's Role in Developing Upper-Body Torque
    Before the right foot landing and during the initial phase of the right foot pivot after landing, your upper body must stall to develop the torque needed in the delivery phase. As mentioned earlier, your upper body must be very relaxed to achieve this torque-like stretch. The left arm is a key help in this process. Hold­ing it back across your chest can be very helpful. (See figure 4.6, f through h.)
    Relax your right arm and shoulder and carry them relatively high behind your back. The discus achieves its high point during this phase. Maximal body torque for most throwers appears to be achieved very near right foot touch­down, which is the beginning of the second single-support phase. Hold this torqued position briefly as you pivot on the ball of your right foot. Shortly before left foot touchdown, initiate the unwinding, very powerful delivery phase.
    This single-support initiation of the delivery is perhaps puzzling. However, careful examination of videos of many successful throwers reveals that the unwinding of the torqued upper body begins before left foot touchdown. This is not something that is taught. Coaches should not tell their throwers to initiate left arm unwinding before left foot touchdown. Conversely, some coaches tell their throwers to delay the delivery until the left foot is down. My experience with that concept is that it causes an unnatural delay in the delivery that potentially results in a jerk. From this right foot touchdown position the foot should quickly pivot around to a delivery position with the heel pointing at 4 or 5 o'clock.

Left Foot/Leg Action From First Single Support Through Power Position
    The left foot/leg sweeps from the push-off position to the front of the circle. Most successful throwers try to keep the knees close together during this back-to-front movement of the left foot to get it down quickly. (See figure 4.6, g through j.)
    It is often said that a bent leg travels faster than a less bent leg (in sprinters).
    However, if you keep your body and your left foot low to the circle during much of the crossing of the circle (as does Virgilius Alekna, winner of the 2000 Olympics), perhaps your left leg need not bend as much as has been common. When the ball of your left foot grounds down in second double support, it should be on line with the arch or heel of your right foot. Both feet should be grounded by the time the discus has approximately 180 degrees of rotation left before release (see figure 4.10).

Discus Path From First Single Support Through Second Single Support
    Move the discus up on a sloping path (not looping) on the right rear side of your body to a high point at least head high. As you continue the movement, the rotational velocity of the upper body slows while the lower body rotates as quickly as possible until there is significant torque between the hips and the torso and the discus is positioned relatively high behind your back as the delivery phase begins (figure 4.6i). Getting the discus up to this position requires some energy expenditure. You will gain the following benefits:
      •  Significant stretching of the muscles across your shoulder and chest
      •  Increased acceleration of the implement as you whip it down from this high point to the low point before the last phase of delivery (figure 4.11)

Delivery
    When your left leg touches down, both legs should be bent and the discus should have 180 degrees of rotation left before leaving your hand (see figure 4.10-position between 4.6 i and D. Your right arm should be fully extended and your left slightly bent with both somewhat perpendicular to the throwing direction. Lift and rotate both legs, driving your body around, up, and for­ward. Lift and block with your left leg while driving around and forward with your right side. Sweep your left arm violently around and fold it against your left side. These actions basically arrest the left side and transfer some rotary momentum to the right shoulder/arm, and ultimately into the discus. Your right arm, after delaying as much as possible by stretching muscles and ten­dons, is ultimately whipped around by your shoulders. Your right hand, which is fighting to control the angle and attitude of the discus, receives tremendous force in the moment before release. Your hand adds slightly to the force as it guides and propels the discus into the atmosphere.
 

Discus Path in Delivery Phase
    The discus is swept down and around in a wide orbit, reaching the lowest point in its orbit just before being lifted and driven forward with a tremendous force resulting from the long unwinding of your torqued upper body and the driving and lifting of your leg and hip muscles. Then comes the ultimate moment of the throw, the release. (See figure 4.6, j through I.) The goal is to transfer a major portion of the developed force from your hand/fingers into the heart of a correctly oriented discus that knifes through the atmosphere on the longest possible flight.
 

Reversing
    As a result of the delivery force, particularly the lifting and driving legs, your body is driven off the surface of the circle while still rotating. As your right foot/leg moves from the rear to the front where it lands, immediately lower your center of mass to gain balance and remain in the circle (figure 4.6m). This switching of leading feet is called reversing (figure 4.12, a through c). It is not forced or practiced. The reverse results naturally from forces developed during the delivery phase. Reversing throwers seldom land and stay on the right foot; instead they usually spin around to dissipate the remaining energy in the body and to regain stability within the circle. Some throwers do not reverse the feet at delivery. We will consider them next.

Nonreversing Technique
    The East Germans---both men and women---have used a nonreversing technique very successfully. Among men throwers Jurgen Schult and Lars Reidel have dominated discus throwing for many years. Virgilius Alekna, a reversing thrower, won the Olympics in 2000 and is successfully challenging Lars Reidel. On the women's side, Ilke Wyluda and Martina Opitz-Hellman have won Olympic crowns and have set various world and Olympic records. It is true that more women have used the nonreversing technique than men have. However, both techniques have been and are used successfully by people of both genders.
 

Starting Stance
    There is basically no difference in the starting stances of the reversing and nonreversing techniques. Face 180 degrees away from the direction of the throw, and place your feet wider than shoulder width (figure 4.13a). You may split the 12 to 6 o'clock line (feet equally distant on either side) or position your left foot near or on the line.

First Double-Support to First Single-Support Phase
    The first major difference between the nonreversing and reversing technique occurs when the right foot comes off the circle, resulting in the first single support. Note that in the initial stage of moving into the throw after the windup, your weight shifts to your left foot, your upper body rotates, and your knees separate, stretching your inner thighs. (See figure 4.13, b and c.) Rather late in the movement your right leg lifts off (delaying the right leg pickup) (figure 4.13c). As your right foot lifts off the circle, it more or less moves up and stays back as the left side of your body continues rotating left. Rotate your left side away from your right leg, which will significantly stretch the hanging, delaying right leg. Raise your right leg to near parallel with the surface of the circle and bend your right knee significantly (figure 4.13d). When you have developed significant tension, snap your right leg around in a powerful soccer-like kick, straightening as you first face the direction of the throw (figure 4.13, e and f). Straighten your leg when you begin facing the throwing direction (near the 4 to 3 o'clock position), then lift and bend it as you become airborne (figure 4. 13g).
 

Flight Phase Through Second Single Support
    Rotate your right foot in the air during the flight phase before landing (figure 4.13g). This rotation puts some torque on your right leg before touchdown. The torquing of the upper body during the flight phase (figure 4.13, f and g) is not unlike that characteristic of the reversing technique. The feeling I get as a thrower or coach when performing or observing the right leg action from the beginning of the sweep through the delivery is that the right leg is the supreme focus of the action.
The right leg leads all other actions. It appears that all actions are dependent on the completion of the right leg tasks. Once your right foot touches down, bend your right leg slightly at the knee and begin rotating (figure 4.13, h through j. For this to occur, your body must be balanced precisely over your right foot.

Delivery
    As your left foot comes to touch down, rotate on the ball of your right foot until it spins out onto the lateral aspect of the foot with your right heel lying well to the right of your right forefoot (figure 4.13, j and k). (Recall that most of the torque between your upper and lower body has been developed by the time your right foot touches down; see figure 4.13h.)
    The medial rotation of your right knee adds to the rotation of your right foot, which is followed by a "hip strike" rotation that, when executed properly, drives your torso, shoulder, and finally your already-stretched arm around and up into the throw. Your left foot should touch down relatively early with your right arm at about 3 o'clock (figure 4.13i). The delivery is driven by your right leg and hip rotating around (against) the blocking left leg, which is firmly planted on the surface of the circle (figure 4.13, i and j). Rotate your right shoulder until well past the point at which your chest is facing the throw position; at this point, with the muscle and tendons of your arm well stretched, your arm rips forward, unleashing the implement. Before, during, and after the release your left foot should be firmly planted at the front of the circle. Your right foot should also remain in contact with the circle, heel up, toes lightly resting on the circle.
    To review-following are the major characteristics of the nonreversing throw:
       1. Right leg pickup-As you lean left and rotate toward the throwing direction, raise your right thigh and lower leg up to a "parallel with the ground" position. Bend, drag, and hang your right leg, putting your thigh muscles on preparatory stretch.
       2. Develop momentum with your right leg by means of a very strong soccer-style kick from the dragging, hanging position to the center of the circle.
       3. The soccer kick causes your right leg to straighten between 11 and 9 o'clock.
       4. From the beginning of the kick through the delivery, your active focus should be on your right foot, leg, and hip, which drive the throw.
       5. Do not lift your planted, blocking left leg off the circle until the discus is long gone. Do not reverse.
 

Technique and Rhythm Drills
    Good discus throw technique is a synchronized blending of a series of body movements. Many things need to happen simultaneously. When parts of the whole movement are difficult to produce within the whole movement, devis­ing a drill to work on the parts can be helpful. However, the parts that are drilled need to be incorporated into the whole as soon as possible.
    Earlier in this chapter under the heading "Feelings and Feedback," I briefly discussed a concept that is of paramount importance in learning any skill: the ability to focus on a particular body part or a particular rhythmic sensation when making a movement. The importance of being able to focus your mind on a specific body part or rhythmic feeling and thereby sense what is occur­ring or to cause a specific movement to take place while learning the discus throw cannot be overstated. It naturally follows then that when making the same movement you must be able to sense or emphasize (on separate throws) a variety of body parts. It is difficult if not impossible to focus your mind on more than one feeling or movement on each throw. The drills that follow there­fore often address the same technical movement but with a different focus during the movement. The hope of all technique work, including drills, is of course to continue to refine each part of the total movement until the tech­nique is an efficient, fluidly blending, rhythmic whole.

STARTING STANCE DRILL

    The circle should have a line from 12 to 6 o'clock. Place the ball of your left foot on the line or slightly to the left; your right foot should be more than shoulder width to the right (figure 4.14a). I emphasize again that with beginners it may be advantageous to cheat left, keeping the major portion of the body weight on the left foot (figure 4.14b).

WINDUP DRILL

    As you become more comfortable with the throw, I advocate moving your body weight from your left to your right leg and then back to the left to gain some momentum during the windup, particularly of course in the final windup that precedes the actual throw.

CRUCIAL MOVE DRILL: PART 1
    Many years as a successful thrower and coach have taught me that the most important or crucial phase or movement in the throw occurs from the start of the windup through right foot touchdown. Work hard to master the rhythm and body positions of this very "crucial move." Wind your arms back to at least perpendicular to the direction of throw (fig u re 4.15a). At this point approximately 80 percent of your body weight should be on your right leg. Your right foot should be pointing at 2 o'clock. Position your left foot with the medial side of the great toe touching the circle. As you begin to unwind, shift your body weight to the left and pull your left foot down on the medial side of the ball of the foot and rotate onto the ball of the foot (figure 4.15b). Sweep your left arm wide around your left leg, which leads the movement in this initial stage of the unwinding and beginning of the throw. As the move proceeds, lift your right foot, keeping your knees spread approximately the same distance as they were in the stance. The lifting of the right foot concludes part 1 of the crucial move.

CRUCIAL MOVE DRILL: PART 2

    body weight should be on your left foot; your right foot is down (very little weight is on the right foot, which is just touching the circle) (figure 4.16a). Bend your left leg and sweep your left arm wide around the rear of the circle while pivoting on your left foot. Keep your left arm generally over your left thigh until your left leg thrusts you off the circle (figure 4.16, a through d). Some key concepts again are bal­ancing on your left leg/foot, rotating to the left, and pivoting on the ball of your left foot. Pick up your right leg as soon as possible (that is only possible when you have shifted your body weight completely onto your left leg) and sweep it wide around your left leg (into the circle) as your left foot continues rotating until it points to 7 o'clock (figure 4.16, b and c). Your left foot should stop rotating when the toes point to 7 o'clock. This stop in rotation is to prevent the dreaded over rotation at the start of the throw. As your right leg starts into the circle (crossing in the direction of the throw-wide) (figure 4.16c), bend and lift your right leg as your left leg thrusts you off the circle and into a subtle jump (figure 4.16d). You should land on the line, balanced on your right foot (figure 4.16e). When your right foot first touches down, your toes should point between 3 and 1 o'clock. Your right arm is of course the important discus-carrying part of this drill. Carry the discus relatively low around the back of the circle and significantly behind your right hip. As you rotate into the direction of the throw, your right arm starts rising on a sloping, not looping, path up to a high point that begins at approximately 7 o'clock, stays high until about 5 o'clock, then descends on a sloping path.

NONREVERSE TECHNIQUE DRILL

    In this drill pick your right leg up high (until your thigh and lower leg are parallel with the surface of the circle) and fold it into a flexed position at the knee before whipping or kicking it around your left leg and straightening it on the right side. Then lift your leg and entire body while driving to the center of the circle, clearing the ground. While in the air, turn your right leg and foot medially (inward) in preparation for landing. Land on your right foot with your toes pointing between 11 and 2 o'clock and imme­diately begin rotating. You must be precisely balanced on your right leg at landing. Although you carry the discus perhaps a bit higher at the back of the circle (start of the throw) than in the reverse style, it should still be far behind your hips; you should lift it to a high point at about 5 o'clock and then lower it on a sloping path. Following are the major differences between the nonreversing and the reversing drill:
       1. Right leg pickup height and knee flexion (slight delay) (figure 4.17a)
       2. Whipping or kicking of the leg on the right side as you face the direction of the throw (figure 4.17b)
      3. Significant rotation of the right leg/foot in the air before touchdown by many nonreverse throwers (figure 4.17c)

DELIVERY DRILL

    The best way to learn this drill is in a static manner, step by step. Once you have the basics down, you can then move into a dynamic practicing mode.
       1. Stand with your right leg bent and your right foot in the center of the circle, toes pointing at 11 or 12 o'clock.
       2. Place your left foot behind and beyond your right foot on a line toward the direction of the throw (6 o'clock). Only the toes of your left foot should be touching (figure 4.18a).
       3. Your discus arm should be up and pointing between 5 and 6 o'clock (high point).
       4. Wrap your left arm across the front of your chest with your hand pointing be­tween 6 and 5 o'clock, as shown in figure 4.18a. This position is similar to the position you would be in at the beginning of the delivery, bent at the hips, body torqued, discus up. I recognize that perhaps no thrower gets the left foot down this early, but for purposes of this drill it is down.
       5. Begin unwinding by both (a) pivoting on your right foot and (b) swinging your left arm out and away from your body (figure 4.18b).
       6. Now lift and drive your body forward as you lift the discus and drive it in the direction of the throw, which should cause you to transfer much of your body weight to your left side as your left arm moves around to the direction of the throw and stalls at your left side (figure 4.18c). The discus should stay up briefly as you begin this movement and then descend on a sloping path to the low point and then back up on the sloping path into the delivery. As this drill concludes, you should be extended to the right or throwing side as far as possible without losing your balance (figure 4.18d). Start by moving slowly through this drill paying particular attention to the starting position; then learn to move fluidly through the movement in a dynamic manner.

SWEEEEP DAH DAH DRILL

    This drill is designed to teach the rhythm of the footwork of the throw. Begin by taking the starting stance; then go into the windup. As you move into the right leg sweep at the beginning, pick your right leg up early to medium height and sweep your left arm over your left thigh. At this stage of the movement your emphasis should be on the sweep of your right leg. Pick your leg up to a medium height and sweep around the back of the circle, straightening briefly between 1 and 11 o'clock. This is the sweep (figure 4.19a). The first "dah" is the grounding of the right foot. The second "dah" is the grounding of the left foot. The rhythm is a relatively long sweep followed by two quick dahs. Sweeeep dah, dah. The emphasis is on the rhythmic sweep of the right foot fol­lowed by a quick grounding of the right foot (figure 4.19b) followed quickly by the left (figure 4.19c).

DISCUS LOW TO HIGH DRILL

    This drill is to teach the proper path the discus should move on from the low to high point. This path is a sloping line, not a looping movement. Stand with your left foot perpendicular to the throwing direction at the back of the circle; your right foot should be outside the circle at about 1 o'clock (figure 4.20a). Carry the discus starting well behind your right hip. Bend your left leg and rotate on your left foot. Now sweep the discus around to the low point (figure 4.20b) and then up on a sloping, basically straight line path (figure 4.20c) from about 11 o'clock to about 7 o'clock (stays high to 5 o'clock), where the discus is at the high point of the throw (figure 4.20d).

MODIFIED SOUTH AFRICAN DRILL

    This drill is almost a complete throw. It is usually done moving up and down a field, not from a circle. But of course the movement can be made in a circle.
    Stand with your right foot perpendicular to the direction of the throw. Swing the discus gently back and forth on your right. Timing your body with the discus, sweep the discus forward then back, and then lift your left leg and drive forward with your right leg (figure 4.21 a). The discus, first back, should then swing down and around and up. Ground your left leg down (figure 4.21 b) while still driving forward around coun­terclockwise with the discus and pick up your right leg, making sure to sweep it wide around the left as you jump up and forward off your left foot, driving your body in the intended direction of throw. The discus should now be high (figure 4.21 c). Land balanced precisely on your right foot with your toes pointing between 1 and 12 o'clock. The discus should be up and back, and your left arm should wrap momentarily across your chest (figure 4.21 d). Your left foot should come to rest on line with your right, with your left toes lined up with your right instep or heel (figure 4.21 d). Begin unwinding by both swinging your left arm out and away from the body and pivoting on your right foot (figure 4.21 e). The actual throw should be crisp and quick-smoothly following the earlier actions. Make a very good release with the discus flying at the proper angle and attitude. As this drill concludes, you should be extended to the right or throw­ing side as far as possible without losing your balance (figure 4.21f).
Emphasize the following points when performing this drill:
       1. Driving into the throw and making a significant linear movement into the throw
       2. Getting the discus high (but not too high)
       3. Proper rhythm
       4. Very good release, with proper flight angle and attitude
    Reversing throwers should finish with the reverse. Nonreversing throwers should work hard on rotating the right side and blocking with the left-no reverse.

STANDING THROW DRILL

    This drill emphasizes the following:
      •  Control of the discus at release (angle and attitude)
      •  Wide to the right maximizing radius
      •  Good flight-angle of attack and release into sky
    Do both reversing and nonreversing standing throws.

REPEATING DISCUS THROW MOTION PIVOTS

    Doing these pivots on a surface with a low coefficient of friction is sometimes enjoy­able. Do five throwing movement pivots in succession, emphasizing good balance and foot rotation. Pivot both at the start (left foot and in the delivery position right foot). The emphasis in this drill is on the pivoting, not on the discus path and plane. Learn to pivot on both feet: Pivot on your left foot, take a step, then pivot on your right. Stop; then repeat four more times. Rest briefly and repeat five more times.
    In this drill the steps should be short---left foot then right foot---to allow you to emphasize the pivot.
 

Strength and Conditioning Exercises
    Quite honestly, most of the conditioning for the discus is done lifting weights, doing plyometric work, and doing sprinting and agility work. (These areas are covered in detail in chapter 2.) However, following are some concepts that will, if done with intensity and attention to getting the most out of the drill, contribute to your throwing ability.
 

THROWING VARIOUS WEIGHTED OBJECTS

    When practicing with differently weighted objects, use both arms to throw---one throw with the right arm followed by one with the left. Medicine balls, as well as light and heavy disci, can be used. I prefer mostly light disci. Strength and power are gained in the weight room and in performing various jumping and sprinting movements. Some research shows that throwers benefit from throwing both light and heavy implements as long as they don't go more than 20 percent above or below the official weight of the implement. Interestingly, I have seen various throwers throw quite a few heavy implements; not many throw lighter implements.
    Many believe that throwers should throw various objects to generally condition the body for throwing. A number of objects have been manufactured and marketed that are supposed to be helpful for throwers, such as cones, puds, balls of many different weights, variable weight discs, many different weights of medicine balls, and iron rods, as well as others. I personally never trained with any of those things. I tried throwing a 10-pound (4.5 kilogram) weight indoors for a few workouts, but I didn't like it. I liked throwing underweight discs during the season. I threw them periodically, not regularly. Medicine ball work can be helpful if done in a variety of ways and with a variety of weights. I never did it, but athletes seem to benefit from this upper-body plyometric work. I am quite firmly of the opinion that athletes must move at high velocities when throwing. Throwing objects that significantly slow the motion are not helpful to long throwing. Obviously you want to do exercises that enable you to throw very far. Strength and power training programs have been proven to do that very well. Many additional activities are still unproven.
    In addition to the exercises covered in chapter 2, following are some exercises and ideas that may be helpful to discus throwers.
 

LOW INCLINE FLY

    With the appropriate weight in each hand, first sit and then lie back on the incline bench. Extend your arms directly out from the shoulders, let the weight drop as far toward the floor as comfortable, then do a horizontal shoulder adduction move to bring your hands together above your head. It is not necessary to keep your elbows completely extended. With lighter weight, however, it is desirable to do so.
 

WRIST ROLLING

    Take a cutoff pole vault pole and attach a small rope to the center (tape it on very well). Slip the tube over a straight bar and place the bar on a squat rack. Either tie the rope to a weight or tie some sort of metallic T to the rope so weight can be hung on it. Once you have attached the weight, roll it up, then lower it. Use both wrist flexion and extension in the rolling process.
    Something to consider is the statement by 1999 world champion Anthony Washington: "I will never do anything slow in the weight room again." Doing exercises fast may increase your power. My experience has been that as long as you include at least one quick lift (all of the Olympic lifts/pulls are quick lifts, as are behind-the-neck jerks) in each strength training workout, you will remain powerful and quick. Coaches and athletes must realize that a thrower is always challenging the power mechanisms of the body when throwing, when doing plyometric exercises, and when sprinting. I therefore do not advocate doing each strength training exercise "as fast as possible." When a person lifts 80 to 100 percent of the lRM resistance in a pressing or squatting exercise, the weight moves relatively slowly. Reducing the resistance level or the range of motion to facilitate moving quickly (quickness is obviously subjective) may defeat the purpose of strength training and put the athlete at risk of injury.
 

Sample Training Program
    The objective of a general conditioning program (table 4.2) is to produce a significant amount of strength, power, and anaerobic endurance and to famil­iarize you with the demands of throwing. Preseason conditioning is directed at causing improvements in speed and power while maintaining a high level of strength. This conditioning emphasis naturally helps you become more effective as a thrower. You train to throw as much as to become very fit. Obviously the competition phase is designed to make you the best thrower possible. The emphasis should be on the throwing, not on conditioning. Conditioning activities are designed to support high-intensity throwing.
    Mac Wilkins, a good friend and a great thrower, frequently discusses the mythical "effortless throw." In his view the effortless throw is the most desir­able throw. I do not agree with that characterization. I would describe my great throws (world records and a few others) as very satisfying effort. When a thrower releases a good or great throw, there is a distinct feeling of completeness or success. The thrower knows immediately whether the effort was "successful." To throwers I say, seek that feeling. I call it very satisfying effort, not effortlessness.
    Fortune Gordien, a great discus thrower and a good man, once told me he had only one great throw in his life (he set four world records). I had many. May you who give yourself to throwing also have many, either as a coach or as an athlete.

FROM: COMPLETE BOOK OF THROWS Jay Silvester Editor--Chapter 4